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SCENZ

Yr 12 CHEMISTRY

Notes & Exercises

C2.5 Organic Chemistry

Name:
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Table of Contents
C2.5 (AS 91165) Organic chemistry Page
Table of contents 1
Introduction 2
Alkanes – nomenclature and structural isomers 3
Alkanes - sources and physical properties 4
Alkanes – chemical reactions 5
Alkenes and alkynes 6
Geometric isomerism 7
Reactions of alkenes – asymmetric addition 8
Reactions of alkenes – polymerisation and oxidation 9
Haloalkanes – elimination vs substitution 10
Amines and alcohols 10
Reactions of alcohols - oxidation 12
Reactions of alcohols – elimination and substitution 13
Carboxylic acids 14
Answers to exercises 15
Periodic Table 17
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C2.5 (AS 91165) ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Questions may involve any of the following:
1. naming and drawing structural formulae of selected organic compounds (no more than eight
carbons in the longest chain)
2. making and explaining links between structure, functional groups and the chemical properties of
alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes, primary amines, alcohols and carboxylic acids
3. identifying and drawing structural and geometric (cis-trans) isomers
4. classifying an alcohol or haloalkane as primary, secondary or tertiary
5. addition reactions of alkenes with H2/Pt, Cl2, Br2, H2O/H+ (conc H2SO4 / H2O) and hydrogen
halides (identification of major and minor products on addition to asymmetric alkenes is included),
polymerisation
6. substitution reactions of alkanes with halogens (limited to monosubstitution), alcohols with
hydrogen halides as well as PCl3, PCl5 and SOCl2, and the substitution of haloalkanes with
ammonia
7. oxidation of primary alcohols to form carboxylic acids with MnO4-/H+ or Cr2O72-/H+ as well as
reaction of alkenes with MnO4‫־‬
8. elimination of water from alcohols and hydrogen halides from haloalkanes (including major and
minor products for asymmetric reactants)
9. acid-base reactions of amines and carboxylic acids

Introduction
Originally organic molecules were originally only thought to exist in living things. Today about 50
million different organic molecules are known to exist (naturally or synthetically) due to carbon’s
ability to form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. In this way carbon forms long chains,
branched structures or rings of carbon atoms. As well as the basic carbon skeleton, a wide range of
reactive atoms or groups of atoms can be added. These are called functional groups and each one
has a characteristic chemistry of its own which can be used to identify that class of organic
molecule.
Families of organic compounds which have the same general formula and functional group are called
homologous series. The molecules within a homologous series will have same chemical
properties. The families you will study in Year 12 are:
 alkanes
 alkenes and alkynes
 haloalkanes
 alcohols
 primary amines
 carboxylic acids
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ALKANES
Molecules containing only hydrogen and carbon atoms are called hydrocarbons. Alkanes are a
family of hydrocarbons in which all the atoms are linked by single covalent bonds. We therefore say
that alkanes are saturated. Since each C atom is surrounded by 4 other atoms, the shape around
each C atom is tetrahedral with bond angles of 109o.
The first eight straight chain alkanes are listed in the table below:

Name Molecular Empirical Condensed Structural

formula formula formula
methane CH4 CH4 CH4
ethane C2H6 CH3 CH3CH3
propane C3H8 C3H8 CH3CH2CH3
butane C4H10 C2H5 CH3CH2CH2CH3
pentane C5H12 C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
hexane C6H14 C3H7 CH3(CH2)4CH3
heptane C7H16 C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3
octane C8H18 C4H9 CH3(CH2)6CH3

The structural formulae shown are only 2 dimensional and it is important to

remember that in three dimensions each bond angle is 109.5o not 90o
as it appears when written on a page. e.g. methane as shown at right.
By studying the pattern of formulae for the alkanes it can be seen that a hydrocarbon has the
general formula CnH2n+2.
Structural isomers
The alkanes shown on the previous page are all called ‘straight chain’ alkanes. Alkanes with 4 or
more C atoms can also exist as branched chain molecules as shown in the following example:
CH3 - CH2 - CH - CH2 - CH3
|
CH3
Like hexane, this molecule has molecular formula C6H14 but clearly its structural formula is different
and it is indeed a different substance with different melting point, boiling point. It is a structural
isomer of hexane, since it has the same molecular formula but a different structural formula.

Naming alkanes
Alkanes are named as follows:
1. Identify the longest continuous chain of C atoms.
CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
| hexane
CH2-CH2-CH3

2. All other C atoms are branches attached to the parent chain and are named according to the
number of C atoms in the attached group. In the example above the side chain is circled and is
ethyl - note the name ending for the substituent is changed from -ane to -yl.
3. The position of the branch on the parent chain is identified by numbering the carbon atoms from
one end of the parent chain. The numbering begins at which ever end gives the lowest possible
number. Hence the molecule above is 3-ethylhexane.
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Note: The position number is separated from the name by a hyphen. The branch and parent
name is all one word.

4. If a molecule has several identical branches, each branch is given a separate number (separated
by comas) but the branches are grouped together using the appropriate prefix:
di- 2 identical groups
tri- 3 identical groups.
tetra- 4 identical groups.

Exercise 10
(i) Draw the structural formulae for each of the following molecules.
2,3-dimethylpentane 2,2,4-trimethylhexane 3-ethyl-2-methylheptane

(ii) Draw and name the structural isomers of C4H10

Sources of alkanes
Alkanes are found in petroleum (either crude oil or natural gas). They are formed by the anaerobic
decomposition of marine plant and animal organisms. In New Zealand natural gas is mainly methane
and carbon dioxide. The crude oil imported to NZ is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons with a
range of molar masses. They are separated by the process of fractional
distillation, which relies on hydrocarbons with different chain length having different boiling points.
Physical properties of alkanes
Alkanes are all colourless. They are all non-polar so they are insoluble in water. They are soluble in
each other and are therefore often used as solvents and grease removers.
Alkanes are molecular and contain no ions. This means they will not conduct electricity.
The smaller the alkane molecule the lower the boiling point and the more volatile the alkane.
As the molar mass increases the boiling points increase as the strength of intermolecular attractions
increases. This intermolecular attraction is due to the attraction between instantaneous dipoles that
are present in the molecule due to the movement of the electron cloud.
 The alkanes methane to butane (C1 - C4) are all gases at room temperature.
 Alkanes with between 5 and about 15 C atoms are all liquids (e.g. kerosene).
 Alkanes with over 15 atoms are soft solids e.g. candle wax.
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Reactions of alkanes
1. Combustion: Alkanes readily burn in oxygen, or air, and are commonly used as fuels e.g. LPG,
CNG, petrol, kerosene, wax. When they burn they are undergoing combustion and being
oxidised. One product is always water. The other product(s) depends on the amount of oxygen
present and can be either CO2, CO, or carbon.
a) Complete combustion - occurs when the reaction is carried out in excess O2 and the
products are CO2 and H2O.
Complete combustion produces a hotter, clean burning flame.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
b) Incomplete combustion - occurs when the combustion is carried out in a limited supply of
air or oxygen. The flame is not clean burning, but is sooty and yellow coloured due to the
presence of glowing soot particles, C. The poisonous gas carbon monoxide, CO, can also be
produced.
CH4(g) + 1.5 O2(g)  CO(g) + 2H2O(g)
or CH4(g) + O2(g)  C(s) + 2H2O(g)

Exercise 11
Write balanced equations for
(i) the complete combustion of butane

(ii) the incomplete combustion of butane to produce carbon monoxide.

2. Substitution of alkanes (bromination) - When bromine, Br2, reacts with alkanes a reaction
occurs that results in an H atom being replaced by a Br atom ie the H atom is substituted. The
reaction is very slow and only occurs in the presence of a catalyst such as ultraviolet light
(sunlight). As the orange bromine molecules are converted to a bromoalkane and hydrogen
bromide, HBr, (both colourless), the orange colour slowly disappears.

sunlight
+ Br2  + H-Br

Note: Only one of the Br atoms from each Br2, not both, is substituted!
This reaction is usually done using bromine water, Br2(aq), a solution containing the bromine
dissolved in water. When bromine water is added to cyclohexane two layers form as water is polar
and cyclohexane is non-polar. On shaking, the orange Br2 moves from the aqueous layer to the
alkane layer as it is more soluble in the non-polar alkane – this is a physical change.
Once exposed to sunlight (UV), the colour of the non-polar layer, containing the alkane and Br 2
mixture, will slowly go from orange to colourless as the slow substitution reaction takes place to form
the bromoalkane.
Note: This reaction is not specific to alkanes as any organic molecule which contains a C-H bond will
also undergo this reaction.
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Naming the haloalkane products

Haloalkanes are named by using the prefixes chloro, bromo etc using numbers where necessary to
indicate on which carbon the halogen is located, as shown in the example below.

2- chloro-4-methylheptane
Note The chloro is named before the methyl group as the substituents are named in alphabetical,
not numerical order.
Exercise 12
Draw the structure of:
(a) 3-chloro-2,4-dimethylhexane

(b) 1,3-dibromocyclohexane

ALKENES AND ALKYNES

Alkenes and alkynes are both families of unsaturated hydrocarbons. This is because they contain
double C=C bonds (alkenes) or triple CC bonds (alkynes). Alkenes with one double bond have the
general formula CnH2n (all have empirical formula CH2), while alkynes with one triple bond have the
general formula CnH2n-2.
To name these molecules, find the longest unbranched C chain which includes the double or triple
bond. This will give you the name of the ‘parent’ alkane and the name ending is simply changed from
-ane to -ene or -yne for alkenes or alkynes respectively. If the carbon chain is more than 3 atoms
long, a number will be needed to indicate where the double or triple bond is to be placed.
e.g.
ethene

1-butene OR but-1-ene
(in this case it is numbered number from RHS as this
gives lowest number)

2-methylhex-3-ene

propyne
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Geometric isomerism
Alkenes can exist as geometrical or cis-trans isomers, a form of stereoisomerism.
A simple example is but-2-ene.

cis - but-2-ene trans -but-2-ene

To exist as geometrical isomers a molecule must have a double bond (or ring) that results in
restricted rotation around the bond and also the C atoms at both ends of the double bond must each
have two different groups (or atoms) attached.

It is impossible for a 1-alkene to have geometric isomers since the first C atom
in the chain has two identical H atoms.

Reactions of alkenes
(a) Combustion (an oxidation reaction) – same as for alkanes.
(b) Addition - is the main type of organic reaction associated with alkenes (and alkynes). It results in
the formation of a single product from two reactants.
Examples of addition reactions with propene are:
(i) Addition of hydrogen gas, H2, which only occurs in the presence of a catalyst (Ni or Pt) at high
temperatures. This can be shown as H2/Pt (where the catalyst comes after the / )
Pt
+ H2 

(ii) Addition of halogens, Br2 and Cl2, to form dibromo- or dichloroalkanes

+ Br2 

1,2-dibromopropane
This reaction is rapid and does not require a catalyst such as sunlight. Addition of an alkene to
bromine results in the rapid decolourisation of the orange bromine i.e. it goes from orange to
colourless. This is commonly used as a test for the presence of unsaturation. The addition of
chlorine to ethene forms 1,2-dichloroethane. This is used to prepare chloroethene (also called
vinylchloride) which is a reactant in the formation of the polymer polyvinylchloride, PVC.

Alkynes will also undergo addition of Br2, however the presence of the triple bond means that either
one or two bromine molecules can be added to form either a dibromoalkene or tetrabromoalkane.
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(iii) Asymmetric molecules such as HCl and H2O can also be added to alkenes resulting in the
formation of two possible products e.g. as propene is an asymmetric hydrocarbon, the two possible
products are:

+ HBr 

1-bromopropane

or
+ HBr 

2-bromopropane

The major product is the one in which the H atom of HBr attaches to the C atom with the most H
atoms already (Markovnikov’s rule -sometimes called the “rich get richer” rule). This means that in
the reaction above the major product will be 2-bromopropane.

Exercise 13
Draw and name the 2 possible products formed when HCl is added to 2-methylbut-2-ene. Identify
the major product.

(iv) Addition of water, H2O, in the form of steam at a high temperature and pressure in the presence
of an acid catalyst, also results in a major and minor product being possible.

H+
+ H2O 

propan-2-ol (major product)

or H+
+ H2O 

propan-1-ol (minor product)

This addition reaction can also occur using concentrated H2SO4 and water (conc H2SO4/H2O).
Note: This may be written as H2O/H+.)
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(v) Addition polymerisation - This is the formation of a long chain molecule by a large number of
alkene molecules adding together at their double bonds. If the starting alkene, the monomer, is
ethene the polymer formed is called polyethene or polythene.
Note: The polymer is fully saturated and has no double bonds, unlike the original monomer, despite
its name ending.

+ + + + +

and so on, combine to form the polymer shown below.

H H H H H H H H H polythene or -(CH2CH2)-n

H3C C C C C C C C C C CH3

H H H H H H H H H
Polypropene is formed from the monomer propene.

n(CH3CH=CH2) 

If the monomer is vinylchloride (or chloroethene) the polymer is polyvinyl chloride, PVC,
where every second carbon atom has a chlorine atom attached to it.

(c) Oxidation – reaction of alkenes with dilute aqueous potassium permanganate results in the
formation of a diol. This molecule has increased bonds to oxygen compared to the alkene so the
reaction is referred to as oxidation. Under the required neutral conditions, the purple MnO4- ion is
reduced to brown MnO2. This colour change can also be used to identify alkenes.

KMnO4


propan-1,2-diol
In acidic KMnO4 the purple solution is decolourised forming the colourless Mn2+ ion.

HALOALKANES (ALKYL HALIDES) RX where X = -F, -Cl, -Br, -I

Haloalkanes are named as a chloroalkane or bromoalkane etc, with the position of the halogen
given by the appropriate number of the carbon that it is attached to in the chain.
The haloalkanes can be classified as
 primary RCH2X - the C atom to which X is attached is only attached to one other C atom
 secondary R2CHX - the C atom to which X is attached is attached to two other C atoms
 tertiary R3CX - the C atom to which X is attached is attached to three other C atoms.
Haloalkanes are relatively nonpolar (despite the polarity of the C-X bond) and are insoluble in water.
A monohaloalkane (eg. 2-bromopropane) can be formed by
a) addition of HBr to propene (forming only one product) or
b) substitution of propane using Br2 (forming two products, the bromoalkane and HBr) or
c) substitution of the -OH on an alcohol using eg. PCl3, PCl5, SOCl2 or conc HCl/ZnCl2
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Substitution reactions of haloalkanes

Haloalkanes undergo reaction by substitution (replacing the X with another group).
This can be done using
(i) aqueous OH, NaOH(aq), to produce an alcohol

+ OH–  + Br–

2-bromopropane propan-2-ol
(ii) alcoholic ammonia (NH3 in a solvent eg ethanol) to produce a primary amine, RNH2.
The reaction of 2-bromopropane would lead to the formation of 2-aminopropane.

Elimination reactions of haloalkanes

Elimination is favoured when the solvent used is less polar e.g. alcoholic (rather than aqueous)
KOH. The reagent may be referred to as ethanolic KOH or KOH / CH3CH2OH or OH /alcohol. The
reaction also occurs more favourably with tertiary haloalkanes rather than primary haloalkanes.

KOH/Ethanol
 CH3CH=CH2 + HBr

If the haloalkane is secondary (or tertiary) and is not symmetric then it is possible to get two (or
three) different alkene products. Saytzeff’s Rule is used to predict the major product which is the one
that is more highly substituted and therefore is the more stable alkene. This means that to form the
alkene the H is removed from the C of the haloalkane that has the least number of H atoms.
i.e “the poor get poorer”.

2-bromo2-methylbutane 2-methylbut-1-ene 2-methylbut-2-ene

minor product MAJOR product

Exercise 14
Give the organic products for each of the following reactions and, if there is more than 1 product,
identify the major and minor product.
a) NaOH(aq)

b)
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AMINES (AMINOALKANES)
Amines are named as substituents eg aminomethane, CH3NH2. These may be classed as primary,
secondary or tertiary, but unlike the haloalkanes the classification depends on the number of carbon
atoms attached to the N atom.

Primary RNH2, secondary R2NH, tertiary R3N

Note: Only primary amines are assessed at level 2.
Amines have an unpleasant “fishy” smell. The smaller amines, up to C5, are soluble in water but
larger alkanes are insoluble, as the size of the non-polar hydrocarbon chain cancels out the effect of
the polar amino functional group.
Like ammonia itself, water soluble amines form basic solutions. They react with water by proton
transfer to form OH- ions. This means aqueous solutions of amines turn litmus blue.
RNH2 + H2O  RNH3+ + OH
Amines also react with acids to form salts.
CH3NH2 + HCl  CH3NH3+ Cl
methanamine (aminomethane) methyl ammonium chloride
The formation of an ionic salt increases the solubility of the amine in acidic solutions (compared to
their solubility in water). This change in solubility can be used to separate amines from other organic
compounds. The formation of the salt also results in the disappearance of the obnoxious
smell of the amine, which explains why lemon juice is often provided with fish meals.
As mentioned earlier, amines are made by the substitution reaction between NH3 and haloalkanes,
but the reaction is carried out using alcohol as a solvent rather than water.

ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are a homologous series of molecules that have the -O-H functional group. They can be
represented as ROH where R is an alkyl group. They are named as for alkanes but with the final -e
replaced by ol.
If there are more than two carbon atoms then a number is needed to indicate the exact position of the
-OH group on the alkyl chain.

CH3OHmethanol

CH3CH2OH ethanol

propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
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Alcohols (and chloroalkanes) are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary, depending on the
number of C atoms that are directly attached to the C atom carrying the -OH group (or -Cl).
i.e. primary RCH2OH, secondary R2CHOH, tertiary R3COH.

Exercise 15
1. Name and label each of the following alcohols as primary, secondary or tertiary.

CH3CH2OH

2. Draw structural formulae for, and classify, each of the following alcohols:
a) butan-2-ol b) 3-methylpentan-1-ol c) 2-methylhexan-2-ol

Reactions of alcohols
Alcohols react in 4 important ways:
1. Combustion - used as a fuel alcohols, especially methanol and ethanol are clean burning in
air and produce CO2(g) and H2O(g) - provided there is sufficient oxygen present.
2. Oxidation – primary alcohols can be oxidised to form carboxylic acids
For example when ethanol is oxidised by an acidified solution of potassium dichromate it is
converted to ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, a carboxylic acid.
The equation for the oxidation half equation is
CH3CH2OH(aq) + H2O(l)  CH3COOH(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 4e
The reduction half equation is
Cr2O72(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e  2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
When this reaction occurs, the colour change observed is from orange, (colour of dichromate ion
Cr2O72), to green (colour of Cr3+). This is the reaction observed in a positive test using the old
blow in the bag “breathalyser”.
When acidified KMnO4 is used to oxidise primary alcohols the colour change is from purple to
colourless. The purple MnO4- ion is reduced to colourless Mn2+.
The ethanol in wine can also be slowly oxidised by the oxygen present in air – particularly in the
presence of certain micro-organisms which act as catalysts for the oxidation process. This also
produces ethanoic acid (originally called acetic acid) which is the acid present in vinegar.
Fortified wines such as sherry and port do not “go off” as they contain such a high concentration
of alcohol that the micro-organisms present in air cannot survive.
Note: Oxidation of alcohols can also lead to families of compounds called aldehydes and
ketones - these are dealt with in Year 13 chemistry.
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3. Elimination produces alkenes by removal of water. This is done by heating with

concentrated sulfuric acid, a dehydrating agent.
conc H2SO4
CH3CH2OH  CH2 = CH2 + H2O
Heat
As with haloalkanes, this elimination reaction will give more than one product if the original
alcohol is not symmetric. The major product is the more highly substituted alkene.

3-methylbutan-2-ol 2-methylbut-2-ene 3-methylbut-1-ene

major product minor product

4. Substitution – alcohols can undergo substitution reactions in which the -OH group is
replaced with a halogen (eg -Cl or -Br) to form a haloalkane. The reagent commonly used is
SOCl2. Other reagents are PCl3, PCl5 or the hydrogen halides such as conc HCl. In the latter
case the reaction only works at room temperature if the alcohol is a relatively small tertiary
alcohol which is soluble in water. The product haloalkane is insoluble in water (as it is
relatively non-polar) and separates out as a separate layer.

Exercise 16
Give the structural formula and the organic product(s) for each of the following reactions.
If there are 2 possible products identify the major product.

a)

b)

c)

Properties of
alcohols
The smallest alcohols are all liquids that are soluble in water (because of the polar O-H bond). As
the non-polar alkyl chain increases in length the molecules become more non-polar and increasingly
insoluble in water. Like the hydrocarbons, the melting and boiling points increase with molar mass
(size of the electron cloud) due to the increasing strength of intermolecular forces (instantaneous
dipole attractions between the molecules).
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Carboxylic Acids
This is a homologous series of molecules containing the functional group - COOH,
sometimes written as CO2H and with the structural formula shown at right

When naming carboxylic acids it is important to remember to include the C atom of the COOH group
when finding the parent name. The systematic name is the parent alkane with the -e removed and
replaced by -oic acid.
Note: A number is never needed as the chain is always numbered from the C of the COOH (which
must be at one end). Any other substituents or branches are also numbered from this same end.
CH3COOH (or CH3CO2H) ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
HCOOH methanoic acid (formic acid)
Exercise 17
Draw the structural formula for 3-chlorobutanoic acid and 2-hydroxypropanoic acid.

Properties of carboxylic acids

Short chain carboxylic acids are soluble in water because the COOH group is polar. As the alkyl
chain increases in length the acids become increasingly non-polar and less soluble in water.
Long chain carboxylic acids are commonly called ‘fatty acids’ because of their insolubility.
Carboxylic acids are weak acids and only slightly dissociate in water to form the hydronium ion, H3O+,
and the “alkanoate” ion.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COO(aq) + H3O+(aq)
ethanoic acid ethanoate ion
Like all acids, aqueous solutions of carboxylic acids have the following properties:
 They turn blue litmus red.
 They conduct electricity as the dissociation in water produces ions that are free to move.
 They react with metals (above H in activity series) forming hydrogen gas and a solution of the
metal salt. The reaction equation can be written as follows:
2CH3COOH(aq) + Mg(s)  2CH3COO(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Since the acid is only a weak acid the concentration of [H3O+] is very small and hence the rate of
reaction with the solid magnesium is slow (bubbles of H2 only slowly appear).
 Carboxylic acids react with metal carbonates giving off CO2 gas.
CaCO3(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)  CO2(g) + 2CH3COO(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2H2O
As for the reaction with metals, the bubbles of gas form slowly since the acid is only slightly
dissociated and the concentration of [H3O+] is small.
(Remember that the rate of reaction depends on the concentration of reactants).
 Carboxylic acids can be neutralised by reaction with a base such as aqueous NaOH.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)  CH3COO(aq) + Na+(aq) + H2O(l)
The sodium salt formed above is called sodium ethanoate. This reaction is typical of those used
in volumetric analysis and a titration can be used to determine the concentration of the carboxylic
acid.
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ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 10
(i)

(ii) CH3CH2CH2CH2OH butan-1-ol butan-2-ol

2-methylpropan-1-ol 2-methylpropan-2-ol

Exercise 11
C4H10 + 6.5O2  4CO2 + 5H2O
C4H10 + 4.5O2  4CO + 5H2O
Exercise 12

Exercise 13

2-chloro-2-methylbutane – MAJOR product 2-chloro-3-methylbutane

Exercise 14
a) b)

MAJOR product Minor product

Exercise 15
2methylpropan2ol (tertiary) ethanol (primary) butan2ol (secondary)

secondary primary tertiary

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Exercise 16

a) b)
2-methylpropanoic acid 2-chloro-2-methylbutane

c) +
2-methylbut-2-ene (MAJOR product) 2-methylbut-1-ene (minor product)

Exercise 17
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
18
Atomic 1 2
Number H He
1 2 1.0 Atomic Mass 13 14 15 16 17 4.0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.9 9.0 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
23.0 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 40.0
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.9 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 98.9 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137 175 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 210 210 222
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
223 226 262

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Lanthanide Series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
139 140 141 144 147 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
Actinide Series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
227 232 231 238 237 239 241 247 249 251 254 257 258 255