Climate Change

Environmental Challenges 15 (2024) 100887
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc
Addressing current climate issues in Pakistan: An opportunity for a

sustainable future
Muhammad Adnan a, b, Baohua Xiao a, *, Shaheen Bibi c, d, Peiwen Xiao a, b, Peng Zhao a, b,
Haiyan Wang a, b
a
State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, Guizhou 550081, China
b
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
c
Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
d
Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Climate change is an inevitable phenomenon and is no longer a myth. Climate change is a new rising problem in
Climate change adaptation South Asia; Pakistan suffers from its disastrous effects. This review examines the risks and effects of climate
Pakistan climate policy change in South Asia, particularly Pakistan. It seeks to illuminate recent floods’ environmental, social, and
Sustainable development goals
economic implications, analyze the causes of the region’s heightened climate change susceptibility, and evaluate
Water resource management
Environmental education
current measures and policies to mitigate these effects. The assessment also seeks to identify research and policy
Environmental sustainability gaps, particularly in environmental funding and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The results indicate that
the current weather trends, including glacier melting, glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), and extraordinary
monsoon rainfall, caused disastrous floods in July and September 2022. Pakistan’s population suffers more from
climate change despite contributing less than 1 % to global greenhouse gas emissions. Rapid industrialization,
fossil fuel use, plastic use, and deforestation worsen the situation. The review emphasizes the benefits of reservoir
management and dam development in strengthening ecosystems and reducing flood risks. It also stresses the
importance of integrating climate policies into a socio-economic and political framework for sustainable envi
ronmental outcomes. This assessment emphasizes the need for comprehensive, coordinated climate change
agreements in South Asia. Governments can prevent climate change and build a resilient and sustainable future
by prioritizing sustainable development, innovative adaptation methods, and international collaboration. This
review recommends increasing funding for climate and water-related research, improving flood risk mitigation
strategies, and using knowledge from diverse research and policy domains to develop innovative climate
adaptation measures to combat climate change. The review emphasizes alignment with SDGs and indicates that
addressing climate injustice’s fundamental causes can improve political strategies and outcomes. It emphasizes
limiting global temperature increases to 1.5 ◦ C to protect ecosystems, human health, and economic stability,
especially in low and middle-income countries where climate threats could impair SDGs.
understanding the earth’s environment and its causes and consequences,

we must understand what climate is and how it changes. Long-term
1. Introduction variations in average temperatures and weather patterns are called
“climate change.” Although these changes may have a natural origin,
Since the 16th to 18th centuries, technology has become the most humans’ release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) has been the primary
accessible in our lives. This period is commonly referred to as “scientific reason for global warming. Although Pakistan contributes less than 1 %
evolution or enlightenment” development, together with many in of GHGs to the atmosphere (Rehman et al., 2021; Zuberi and Ali, 2015),
ventions that arrived. Not only does this facilitate hand-to-hand labor, Pakistan is more vulnerable to the effects of global warming (Arshad
but it also provides evidence of the possibility of work through indus et al., 2021; Farooqi et al., 2005; Malik et al., 2012; Mustafa, 2011; Syed
trialization labor. Where there has given us facilities, there is also a et al., 2022). Pakistan has consistently ranked among the top 10 most
detriment to the quality of the earth and its environment. Before
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xiaobaohua@mail.gyig.ac.cn (B. Xiao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2024.100887
Received 21 December 2023; Received in revised form 25 February 2024; Accepted 4 March 2024
Available online 5 March 2024
2667-0100/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
M. Adnan et al. Environmental Challenges 15 (2024) 100887
List of abbreviations including units and nomenclature GEAs global environmental assessments
NDMA national disaster management authority
GLOFs glacier lack outburst floods LULC land use and landcover
GHGs greenhouse gases TP Tibetan plateau
CRI climate rate index UNDP United Nations development program
GDP gross domestic product ICOLD international commission on large dams
ppm per million CLP Chinese loess plateau
US United State FCI flood control infrastructure
UN united nations MAF million-acre feet
COP conference of all parties GISS Goddard institute for space studies
UNFCCC United Nations framework convention on climate change UHI urban heat island
IPCC intergovernmental panel on climate change LST land surface temperature
CDR carbon dioxide removal
vulnerable countries on the Climate Rate Index (CRI) (Harmeling and environmental shifts significantly impact human migration patterns
Eckstein, 2013; Kreft et al., 2013; Shah et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2018). around the world, especially where they meet with economic, political,
Climate change is a serious threat to Pakistan and has serious ramifi and social factors (Schwerdtle et al., 2018). As a result of global
cations for any government in the immediate aftermath of climate warming, Pakistan has been hit by a series of devastating floods in the
change. Climate change is an international issue that has no exception to previous decades (Jamshed et al., 2021). Both developed and devel
Pakistan (Shahzad and Amjad, 2022). It is the country that is susceptible oping countries are susceptible to flooding (Hamidi et al., 2020). Floods
to this severe disorder. substantially influence the growth and development of a geographical
Previous evaluations have demonstrated the connections among area (Skilodimou et al., 2021), especially urban floods (Chauhan et al.,
global warming, poverty, livelihoods, and human susceptibility and how 2023).
global warming has varying effects on various communities and groups Humanity faces an existential threat in the shape of climate change
(Birkmann et al., 2022). There is widespread scientific agreement that (Amster, 2014). Due to global warming, the weather patterns are
this is happening and that if current trends in global warming remain, changing continuously, leaving unprecedented impacts on the planet
the resulting increases in average global temperature, sea level, and the (Arfasa et al., 2024; Mora et al., 2013). The earth’s average temperature
occurrence of extreme weather circumstances (such as storms, heat has risen from 1.5 ◦ C (Kjellström et al., 2018; Rogelj et al., 2018). The
waves, cyclones, droughts, floods, and so on) could lead to widespread environmentalists believe that if the phenomenon continues, 2 ◦ C will
malnutrition, homelessness, water scarcity, economic collapse, and the increase the earth’s temperature, and the survival of the homo sapiens
extinction of many animal and plant species (Raimi et al., 2021). on the planet will become impossible. The emissions of GHGs, i.e.,
Regarding gradual and sudden climate shifts, Pakistan is among the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Methane (CH4), are causing the trap of re
world’s most vulnerable nations (Salik et al., 2020). Humanity faces the flected heat and heating the earth (Ane, 2013; Ussiri and Lal, 2017). The
scientific, economic, social, and ethical dilemma of preserving Earth in torrential rains, melting of ice sheets, heat waves, droughts, and rising
pristine condition for future generations (Peydayesh et al., 2022). These sea levels are all impacts of climate change. It is essential to highlight
Fig. 1. Global map of systemic human vulnerability, modified from (Birkmann et al., 2021).
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that Pakistan is included in the most susceptible level due to the and social sustainability are only a few sustainability issues that nations
worldwide spatial analysis of the two vulnerability indices (INFORM must tackle (Kugelberg et al., 2021). Global warming is the one concern
and WorldRiskIndex) (see Fig. 1) (Birkmann et al., 2021). Pakistan is that all countries have in common. Clean growth is not a mere alter
surrounded by three high-altitude mountain ranges from east, north, native; it is a responsibility we owe to the next century, and economic
and south, most covered with ice caps and glaciers, and the warm progress has to go hand in hand with increased environmental protec
Arabian Sea at its south (Rahman et al., 2020). This geological position tion (Mehta et al., 2021).
and other anthropogenic activities make Pakistan (Rasul and Ahmad, This review was carried out with the following goals: 1) To provide a
2012) and other South Asian countries more vulnerable to climate concise summary of the dangers and effects of climate change. 2) To
change (G. Ali et al., 2009; Nepal and Neupane, 2022) than other highlight the implications of the recent flood on the environment. 3) To
countries, as seen in the past two decades. From 1998 to 2018, Pakistan bring attention to funding-related concerns concerning the environ
has seen almost 150 extreme weather events. Since 1990, 14 floods hit ment. 4) To provide a systematic approach to these impacts to aid pol
the country badly. Pakistan is also exposed to Glacial Lack Outburst icymaking and better decision-making.
Floods (GLOF) due to the melting of glaciers at a higher pace (Amin
et al., 2020; Hussain et al., 2020). The most recent flooding in 2022 has 2. Methodology
nearly cost Pakistan destruction around $30 billion (Ali et al., 2022).
These floods have destroyed Pakistan’s agriculture, the main contributor A comprehensive search was carried out on several databases like
to its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Although Pakistan’s contribution Elsevier Science Direct, Science Online, Web of Science, and China Na
to GHG emissions is less than that of developed countries, the world has tional Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) using specific keywords relating
devised a mechanism to save the environment from the negative effects to the research topics, such as Pakistan climate policy, climate change,
of climate change; however, more efforts are needed. sustainable development goals, water resource management, environ
The GHGs in the atmosphere trap the reflected heat from the earth, mental sustainability, conference of all parties, population, flood, tem
causing an increase in temperature (Dawson, 2015; Karl and Trenberth, perature, glaciers, and environmental education. To guarantee the
2003; Shepardson et al., 2011a, 2011b). Anthropogenic activities: quality and relevancy of the literature, particular inclusion and exclu
hyper-consumerism, industrialization, and transportation are the lead sion criteria were applied to this first search. According to the inclusion
ing causes of global warming. Nature also contributes to global warming criteria, the research had to directly address the effects of corporate
(Rajak, 2021), i.e., the eruption of volcanos and CH4 leakage from oil environmental practices, be peer-reviewed, published within the past
wells contribute to more atmospheric GHGs. As per the research, 80 % of few years, and directly address the effects of climate change on Paki
global warming is caused by industries and transportation (Akorede stan’s environment and society, including focusing on water-related
et al., 2012; Capoccitti et al., 2010). The concentration of CO2 was about concerns and flood control. Exclusion criteria eliminated papers not in
280 per million (ppm) in the 18th century, but it is now more than 400 English, grey literature, and those that did not directly address the topic.
(ppm) in the atmosphere (Pacheco-Torgal, 2018). Burning fossil fuels in By following this meticulous procedure, we were able to locate and
industries and combustion in any other form are the main contributors carefully choose the literature that serves as a strong basis for our
to global warming. The main contributor to climate change is an investigation, guaranteeing that our evaluation is thorough and focused
increased concentration of CO2, responsible for maintaining the green on excellent, relevant research. By facilitating replication by other re
house effect and global warming by around 11 %, which escalated the searchers and offering a transparent justification for the literature se
earth’s normal temperature. lection we made, our methodological transparency strengthens the
Moving one’s head into sand doesn’t mean the hazard has been scientific validity of our findings on the pressing issue of climate change
avoided; it has become a more severe problem. Earth is in turbulent in Pakistan.
waters as it remains in one crisis after another (Houtart, 2010 Masco,
2017). The world is facing an existential threat nowadays in the shape of 2.1. Research funding and governance are still unbalanced
climate change (Sharma et al., 2021). The pattern shift is mainly due to
natural phenomena. Water crisis is one of the most heinous problems Foreign relief is often granted to countries that are not in a position to
globally, particularly in developing countries (Grey and Sadoff, 2007). tackle their domestic problems on their own. Thus, they turn to foreign
Water crisis has no sympathy for whether it is a developed or developing assistance, often in the form of loans or capital. The donors also have
country. Still, in the past few decades, its intensity has spiked due to their interests and goals most of the time; according to Napoleon Hill,
anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, uncontrolled rapid ur “There is no such thing as something for nothing.”
banization, and no treatment of toxic effluents from industries (Adnan
et al., 2022a, 2022b; Alexakis et al., 2021). Because of these anthropo 2.1.1. Are COP28 environmentally sustainable?
genic activities, the world’s natural ecosystems are deteriorating, which No doubt, climate change is one of the most crucial issues that the
in turn shifts the climatic patterns, which, as a result, are causing severe world is facing. The United Nations (UN) arranged a conference alias
droughts, extinction of species, famine, floods, and increasing world Conference of All Parties (COP), which has only the purpose of curbing
temperature. Management of both groundwater and surface water is emissions and increasing global warming (Berrang-Ford et al., 2021b),
crucial for progress in society (Li et al., 2018). which is possible only by returning energy from non-renewable re
Our current knowledge is sufficient for climate change or global sources to renewable energy sources, i.e., solar and wind, etc. Yet, the
warming to enable the implementation of evidence-based solutions. The first conference took place in 1995 in Berlin, Germany. Unfortunately,
suitability of the planet depends on our actions today. The climate ca progress has not been made since COP15′s decision that developed
tastrophe could be avoided by more funding and nationally determined countries will provide $100 billion annually to assist all vulnerable
goals. The world should heed the problem and take no stone left for the countries due to climate change (Parvaiz, 2022). Moreover, the COP26
future of humanity and the ecosystem. 40 % of global warming is caused conference has been arranged, and recently, in 2022, the COP27 was
by the United States (US), China (Mohajan, 2011); according to a report held in Egypt, and the COP28 event in Dubai in 2023. The COP26 is an
published by the European Commission, China, the United States, India, indicator of the solemn commitment undertaken by many countries to
the EU27, Russia, and Brazil were the six primary global emitters of reduce the atmospheric temperature as it was during the pre-industrial
(GHGs) in 2022 (Crippa et al., 2021). International organizations and periods. The COP28 also played a crucial role in supporting interna
forums should devise a mechanism to check on the world’s significant tional endeavors, as outlined in the Paris Agreement, to limit the in
economies. Carbon taxation and the use of energy efficiency should be crease in global temperatures.
courageous. Environmental sustainability, human health, and economic As the UN acknowledged in 2015 with the adoption of the Sendai
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Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, the Sustainable leave the “safe operating space,” which is currently well inside the Paris
Development Goals of Agenda 2030, and the Paris Agreement on limits (Schellnhuber et al., 2016). Indeed, COP28 brought attention to
Climate Change, addressing climate change needs extensive interna Pakistan’s susceptibility to climate-related risks, thereby facilitating
tional collaboration and cooperation (Zhang et al., 2022). Recent com global cooperation and monetary assistance for initiatives to build
mitments from over 80 countries (representing roughly 70 % of global resilience, and it emphasized the need to shift towards sustainable en
greenhouse gas emissions) have set a net-zero plan (mainly by 2050 or ergy, aligning with the SDGs objectives of accessible and environmen
2060), but the consequences of achieving these commitments and how tally friendly energy.
they compare to the advantages they would bring still need to be In addition, the recent flash floods in Pakistan caused roughly $30
determined (Zhao et al., 2022). The Paris Agreement mandates net-zero billion in losses, with $21 billion loss in the agriculture sector, according
CO2 emission in every sector by the second half of the 21st century, and to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and many were uprooted. As per
many governments have adopted climate neutrality commitments to the Ministry of Finance, the economic loss from the recent torrential
keep the global temperature rise below 2 ◦ C as well as avoid a 1.5 ◦ C rise rains and inundation is about $39 billion. The world has acknowledged
(Ma et al., 2023). In 2021, the average temperature increased by global the disastrous effects of climate change but still is not doing practical
warming was likely to reach 1.2 ◦ C, which is above the average of work to address the problem adequately. Due to their disproportionate
1850–1900 (Xu et al., 2022). A historic, legally enforceable climate global GHG emissions, rich polluters are responsible for taking action
agreement was concluded in Paris after around 20 years of discussions against climate change. Several political analysts, inside and outside the
under the aegis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate government, claim things will return to normal after COP27 releases the
Change (UNFCCC). With the understanding that doing so would greatly flood fund. The climate finance debate will continue to raise new
mitigate climate change’s negative effects, 195 countries pledged at questions (Why climate finance, 2022). While it is true that these poli
COP21 to maintain the rise in the average worldwide temperature to ticians are engaging in negotiation and back door channels to save this
well below 2 ◦ C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue initiatives razor-majority government, it is also true that civil society and various
aimed at limiting the temperature increase to 1.5 ◦ C above pre-industrial nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) must show solidarity to assist
levels (Schellnhuber et al., 2016). In this decades, reducing greenhouse those in need in their hour of need. Hundreds of thousands of people
gas (GHG) emissions is necessary to meet the nationally agreed-upon across Pakistan have been affected by torrential rainfall floods,
obligations to keep global warming below 2 ◦ C (Xu et al., 2022). including 580 persons killed and 539 injured. We should keep going if
Therefore, it is critical that decarbonization rapidly increases sector- we all work together to close the action gap, even though the COP27
wide efforts to reduce CO2 emissions to minimize global climate change outcome for Pakistan needs to be more comprehensive and adequate.
(Ma et al., 2023). More than 80 % of coal, 50 % of gas, and 30 % of oil Nevertheless, COP28 also revealed notable flaws, mainly regarding
reserves must be left underground by 2050, and these percentages in pledges to tackle Pakistan’s urgent climate adaptation requirements and
crease to 89 % for coal, 58 % for oil, and 58 % for gas if the revised goal the necessary global finance structures for such changes.
of 1.5 ◦ C global warming by 2050 is to be achieved (Codato et al., What lessons have the government of Pakistan and the local com
2022a). In 2019, oil refineries accounted for over 5 % of global munities learned from the previous and current floods? Do any policies,
energy-sector GHG emissions, making refineries the third-largest sta environmental regulations, or other such things undergo any modifica
tionary source of GHG emissions worldwide. Also, the oil refining tion due to their presence? And what recommendations do the leading
industry’s GHG emissions increased by 24 % between 2010 and 2018. environmentalists worldwide have for addressing these pressing con
While the COVID-19 pandemic caused a 9 % drop in production in the cerns? Apart from money?
global refining industry, as the population and GDP continue to recover
and grow, emissions from this industry will likely rise again and keep 3. Effective environmental conversation policies
going up (Ma et al., 2023). From 2018 until annual net-zero emissions
are reached, the IPCC recommends reducing CO2 emissions to 840, 580, Multiple articles have evaluated their achievements and shortcom
or 420 Gt CO2, depending on the likelihood that global warming would ings as boundary work providing valuable and trustworthy policy-
be kept below the 1.5 ◦ C limit (Codato et al., 2022a). Most notably, CH4 making information (Palutikof et al., 2023). Nonetheless, judgments in
concentrations from enteric fermentation are significantly lower in Af the real world sometimes involve making concessions between a variety
rica and Asia under scenarios limiting the average global temperature of risks. In that case, a coastal hazards policymaker must weigh the risks
rise to 1.5 ◦ C above pre-industrial levels, contrasted with warming at to coastal properties from rising sea levels against the threats to policy
3–4 ◦ C (Humpenöder et al., 2022). continuity and individual political fortunes if a sizable or vocal portion
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that of the community does not accept a proposed coastal hazard manage
the upper limit of CO2 absorbed in the atmosphere must be 1170 Gt from ment plan (Simpson et al., 2021). More than 140 Global Environmental
the beginning of 2020 if the 2 ◦ C objective is to be met, while the amount Assessments (GEAs) have been conducted since the late 1970s (Palutikof
for the 1.5 ◦ C aim is 400 Gt of CO2 (Ma et al., 2023). In addition, Ger et al., 2023). According to the global assessment, individual countries
many and many other European countries have shut down their coal are ranked according to the risk countries pose (Birkmann et al., 2021).
plants and turned to green technologies for energy generation, thus The IPCC updated its assessment of the baseline scenario for the
reducing environmental pollution. Pakistan should also adopt a similar worldwide climate policy agenda in its 2018 report, revising the
course of action to reduce atmospheric pollution to the maximum extent objective to a rise in the global average temperature of no more than 1.5
possible. Further dramatic emissions targets are required to achieve the ◦
C by 2035 (Codato et al., 2022b). Co-benefits for air quality may be
Paris Agreement’s temperature target (Zhao et al., 2022). Nearly 61 % of substantial if climate change mitigation policies are implemented, pri
hydropower plants and 81 % of thermoelectric power plants worldwide marily due to less dependence on coal (Anderson et al., 2018). National
had their useable capacity shown to decrease between 2040 and 2069 policymakers may be interested in how their country stacks up against
(Salimi and Al-Ghamdi, 2020). In line with the Paris Agreement, deep others, but researchers haven’t paid nearly enough attention to how the
decarbonization is projected to rely heavily on Carbon Dioxide Removal susceptibility patterns of various countries are linked to each other
(CDR) technologies, commonly called negative-emissions technology. (Birkmann et al., 2021). Not only can low-income neighborhoods in
Despite the wide gap between planned installation scales and present California benefit from knowing the answer to this issue, but climate
technological capability, no country has launched a CDR research and policy as a whole would benefit from knowing how GHG emissions re
development program (Sanchez et al., 2018). Now, the Earth system ductions correspond to reductions in co-pollutant emissions (Anderson
research has progressed to the point where it can provide strong support et al., 2018). The term “environmental injustice” refers to the dispro
for the intuitive notion that it’s not a good option for humankind to portionate burden of pollution-related disease that falls
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disproportionately on low-income, minority, and disenfranchised peo will interact with one another could have a negative influence on other
ple, even though these groups are often denied their fundamental human objectives (Doelman et al., 2022). A significant amount of work still
rights (Landrigan et al., 2018). Environmental justice campaigning and needs to be done to reduce the inequitable distribution of the costs
policy have always prioritized preserving natural ecosystems over associated with climate action (Martin et al., 2021), particularly in
safeguarding human communities and infrastructure (Ulibarri et al., Pakistan.
2022). This problem has been around for a long time and is a major obstacle
In addition, numerous significant contributions highlight how the to human progress (Zhang et al., 2023). Climate change impacts human
COVID-19 problem generates momentum to include health concerns in and environmental health and requires urgent acceleration and contin
the assessment, communication, and implementation of environmental uous monitoring. Only international cooperation can demonstrate a
regulations, leading to bigger goals and rapid behavior modification proactive approach to such critical problems. The concept of a
(Vandyck et al., 2022). Academia and policy-making organizations all contributor to climate change and the removal of tax and subsidy ben
across the globe are pushing for health policies that consider climate efits for contaminating businesses should be core elements of any
change (Cai et al., 2022). Concerns about growth and policy at the effective environmental management strategy, and such legislation
regional, national, and global levels have focused on the effects of should be required by law. In addition, the law should require the
climate change on agriculture in human communities (Atanga and concept of a contributor to climate change. Many sustainability studies
Tankpa, 2021). To successfully navigate the transition of the food supply have disclosed preliminary scientific observations, assessed the links
chain, it is essential to design efficient food policies (Hebinck et al., between sustainability and the climate change issue, and provided
2021). Policymakers are increasingly interested in transitioning to a policy solutions for crisis response evaluations to enable sustainability
sustainable food supply chain due to the food system’s potential impact adaptions best. Unexpected delays in the implementation of the funda
on various of problems, including the environment, nutrition and food mental strategy raise questions. The human mind can be taught to
security, commerce, equity, and healthcare (Kugelberg et al., 2021). All provide constructive solutions for societal problems. Nonetheless, this
of the agriculture issues can be resolved with the help of dams, hasn’t proven easy to accomplish because of past theoretical involve
interest-free loans, education, cutting-edge technology, various herbi ment. The ultimate means to ensure integrity in the fellowship is
cides, fertilizers, high-quality seeds, crop rotation, etc. Policymaking in disseminating these principles through education.
the arena of water management is one such crucial component (Fida
et al., 2022a). Water plays a significant role in the building economy. 3.1. Participation in climate change-related activities
Pakistan is not the only country facing a water crisis; this is a global
issue, and many countries are in the orbit of the whole scarcity line. Hence, the more we mitigate/prevent well, the better we prepare and
Here, Fig. 2 shows most water-related legislation and regulations of respond. Therefore, the international community must take adequate
Pakistan (Fida et al., 2022b). The implementation of policies to attain measures to control climate change. As the world moves towards
particular goals without taking into consideration how those policies renewable energy resources, there should be afforestation and, last but
Fig. 2. Historical evolution of water resources management in Pakistan, (Reprinted from Ref. Fida et al. (2022b), with permission of the publisher).
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not least, a ban on plastic bags. Renewable energy is essential for miti industrialization, population growth, and pollution. As the temperature
gating and adapting to the effects of climate change. Critical renewable is increasing and affecting globally, the CO2 temperature is higher than
energy technologies shown in Fig. 3 and their implications for achieving in the last decade. Therefore, the ecological system also is disturbed.
zero emissions (are explored in this paper (Wang et al., 2021)). The Many issues have emerged in response, such as floods, cyclones, and
world has to control climate change as soon as possible. Environmental famine. So many dynamic ways are impacting the environment. For
sustainability is widespread in several parts of the world, and the general example, in 1950, CO2 released 6 billion tonnes, and in 1990, it
public must be made aware of and adequately handled in all such me quadrupled; after 40 years, 22 and 35 billion tonnes existed.
diums. Climate change is in excess of natural vulnerability attributed to Although most people currently reside in a metropolis (Brooks, 2019;
human activity. Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change (Jan He et al., 2022), by the year 2050, when there will be 9.8 billion humans
et al., 2021). According to German watch report, Pakistan is 5th most on Earth (Brooks, 2019; Doelman et al., 2022; Öhlund et al., 2020), 70 %
vulnerable country to climate change (Jan et al., 2021; Mukhtar, 2020). of the world’s population will live in metropolitan regions (Brooks,
Pakistan’s economic, social, and political systems are all being 2019). More than one-third of all people will reside in China and India
strained by the country’s low literacy rate. Yet, Pakistan is particularly (Brooks, 2019). According to the UN, the population of Pakistan will be
vulnerable to environmental changes because of its low literacy rate. 368 M (million) by 2050, as seen in Fig. 4, and it is estimated that India
Pakistan is not highly industrialized but is most affected due to global has now surpassed China to become the world’s most-populated nation
warming (Fahad and Wang, 2018). However, with the support of the (United Nations, 2023). This is especially concerning given that 38 % of
government and social welfare groups, short-term, intermediate-term, the global population resides within 100 km of the coast (Wittmer et al.,
and long-term targets can be established to improve Pakistan’s literacy 2021). So, overpopulation is a big issue leading to a water crisis. The
rate. Educating and aware citizens will make it much easier to prevent population is more vulnerable and exposed due to rising human activity
environmental degradation. The federal government and individual and urbanization (Shahid et al., 2022). The previous study discovered a
municipalities bear some of the responsibility for this situation, given significant positive association between temperature variations in the
their respective policymaking efforts and levels of knowledge. To better Northern Hemisphere and population growth rates for the globe,
prepare the public for natural disasters, the National Disaster Manage Northern Hemisphere, Asia, North America, Europe, and China (Zhang
ment Authority (NDMA) should use all available educational tools to et al., 2011).
raise public awareness. Government decisions on the federal and pro Due to the rapid growth of the human population, land use and land
vincial levels and the carelessness of most of the populace can be seen as cover (LULC) have changed worldwide in recent decades (Khan et al.,
solipsistic in light of the current scenario. 2022). Our planet’s natural resources are being used up at a rate that is
1.6 times faster than they can be replenished by the global economy
4. Systems and complexity each year (Wittmer et al., 2021). Almost 90 % of the world’s rural
population resides in less developed areas (Jamshed et al., 2020a).
4.1. Overpopulation Polluted environments disproportionately harm the health and
well-being of the poorest and most vulnerable communities (McAlister
The population is being increased, and their resources are generating et al., 2022). Estimating future health implications is challenging due to
and going to the consumption process. This indicates the rise or fall in several factors, including climate change, health effects, and population
temperature, which does not cause a change in Climate or natural di growth (Li et al., 2013).
sasters, but the main reason to change the Climate is human activities. In contrast, in the past five decades, the worldwide population has
Climate change is rapidly developing bit by bit—the cause of doubled, and this expansion can only be maintained by a highly effective
Fig. 3. Core technologies for renewable energy production, (Reprinted from Ref. Wang et al. (2021), with permission of the publisher).
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Fig. 4. Top five most populous countries, estimates for 1970 and projections for 2023 and 2050, (Reprinted from ref (United Nations), with permission of
the publisher).
global food production system and, more crucially, by eliminating all 4.2. Water
food waste (Peydayesh et al., 2022). Agricultural yield changes show the
relationship between increasing populations and global warming The need for improved worldwide groundwater depictions in hy
(Zhang et al., 2011). Furthermore, South Asia is a less developed region drologic literature has been widely established (Condon et al., 2021).
with a large population and heavy reliance on agriculture (Xie et al., Water is a precious but often undervalued public resource (Yuan et al.,
2022). Access to fresh and clean drinking water decreases due to the 2022). Although the Earth is mostly covered by water, most of the
rising population, and climate change further influences the environ freshwater we depend is frozen in glaciers, ice sheets, frozen ground, or
ment (Fida et al., 2022a). It increases the water demand and leads to hidden far below the ground (Arora and Mishra, 2022). Changes in food
water insecurity worldwide. Excessive water consumption and rapid and water security, air quality, and social and economic structures are
population expansion have led to a dramatic increase in contaminants only some ways climate change negatively impacts the environment
and an associated scarcity of potable water in Pakistan (Nawab et al., (Romanello et al., 2022). Recent decades have seen tremendous shifts in
2022). Climate change, population growth, fast urbanization, and the the world’s surface water bodies, such as the enlargement of alpine lakes
development of new residential areas have all contributed to the severity due to global warming and the reduction of freshwater lakes due to
and frequency of floods in Pakistan, making the country highly sus human activity (Hou et al., 2020). In the last century, human water
ceptible (Hamidi et al., 2020). withdrawal has increased dramatically from ~500 km3 yr− 1 to ~4000
Because of human settlement and changes in riverine environments, km3 yr− 1, almost ~15 % each decade between 1960 and 2010 (Wada
flood damage has become more severe (Benito and Vázquez-Tarrío, et al., 2016). Although there is some evidence in other areas, such as
2021). For example, Bangladesh has the largest population and highest water and sanitation 7 % evidence, cities and infrastructure 6 %,
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is susceptible to riverine floods (Leal terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems 5 %, and ocean and coasts 4 %, the
Filho et al., 2022). The control of flooding is a significant societal duty overall proportion is modest (Berrang-Ford et al., 2021a). The existing
that is only predicted to become more challenging as a result of various extractive food chain uses water and land resources in an unsustainable
trends, such as the rising populations and development, the increasing manner and is responsible for 21 % to 37 % of all global GHG emissions
impacts of sea level rise, the intensity of precipitation extremes, and the (Herforth et al., 2022).
compounding effects of sea level rise and terrestrial flooding (Luke et al., Groundwater is used for drinking and irrigation in many developing
2018). Floods are expected to become more common and severe in the countries, including Pakistan (Abbas et al., 2018). Groundwater quality
next decades due to global warming, potentially affecting up to 1.2 % of issues have increased dramatically due to overexploitation in several
the world’s population (Dimitrova and Muttarak, 2020). The Tibetan areas of Pakistan, particularly the Punjab Province (Ullah et al., 2022).
Plateau (TP), along with the Arctic and Antarctic, is regarded as one of Due to increased industrialization, mining operations, agricultural
the few unspoiled areas on Earth because of its low population density practices, and urbanization, Pakistan’s groundwater supplies, notably in
and lack of industrialization (Cong et al., 2015). the Sargodha region, have become increasingly susceptible in recent
decades (Jat Baloch et al., 2022a). In Pakistan, only 26 % of the popu
lation has access to clean water for drinking (Jat Baloch et al., 2022b).
7
There are more than 785 million people in the globe who do not have water supplies for all by 2030” (Arora and Mishra, 2022). Under the
access to clean drinking water (Fida et al., 2022a). There is an increasing UN’s SDGs, the Chinese government has created programs to protect
water shortage and water quality problems worldwide (Villanueva et al., freshwater habitats (Hou et al., 2020). Global warming can intensify the
2023). Most water used for human consumption originates on forested global water cycle seasonally and regionally (Bador and Alexander,
lands, and the water quality strongly depends on the ecosystem’s state 2022). Because of the hydrologic seasonality and the growing influences
(Huq et al., 2014). There is a strong correlation between poverty and a of climate change and variability, water resources are becoming
lack of access to clean water (SenGupta et al., 2017). Inadequate water increasingly scarce in some areas of the world (Song et al., 2022a). Fig. 5
supply and sanitation affect a large portion of the world’s population, gives an overview of SGDs and the effects of the floods on Pakistan’s
especially those living in rural areas of low-income and middle-income long-term sustainability.
nations (Landrigan et al., 2018). As the source of more than ten main rivers in Asia, the TP is some
Sustainable management of water resources has come under scrutiny times referred to as the “Third Pole” or “Asian Water Tower,” and its
due to increasing demand, shortages of water, and water contamination high mountains have a significant impact on water storage and supply
(Yuan et al., 2022). Despite recent improvements, safe and reliable for more than a billion people in the downstream nations (Song et al.,
drinking water is a global concern, not just in low-income countries 2022c). Considerations of the enormous rivers that originate from Asia’s
(Wright et al., 2018). Global public health is dependent on access to mountains — the water tower of Asia — and provide water, food, and
clean, safe drinking water, which has the potential to decrease the energy for approximately 3 billion people are possibly illustrative of the
incidence of waterborne diseases significantly (Nawab et al., 2022). As complexity of such feedback among climate and river flow (Best, 2019).
reported by UN-Water, an estimated 3.5 million deaths worldwide can Reservoirs help water managers convert natural flow conditions into
be attributed to poor sanitation and hygiene each year (SenGupta et al., flow conditions that meet human demands (Song et al., 2022a).
2017). The World Health Organization’s (2022) study on drinking water There have been several ecological and environmental problems
states that polluted water and insufficient sanitation can serve as brought on by rapid development, including challenges to the metro
breeding grounds for waterborne diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, politan landscape’s water sources (Song et al., 2022b). Together, water
dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio and that these diseases are scarcity and fossil fuel use paint a negative depiction of humanity’s
expected to cause 485,000 fatalities per year (Arora and Mishra, 2022). detrimental effect on Earth: purifying water to ease the strain on
A new analysis estimates that almost 2.3 billion people worldwide are freshwater use is estimated to account for 5 % of all GHG emissions, and
dealing with severe waterborne infections caused by contaminated the world’s desire will increase by 20–30 % by 2050, whereas it
water (Nawab et al., 2022). The probability of waterborne diseases, generally consensus that exploring sources of clean energy is essential as
including cholera and diarrhea, rose due to flooded drainage and sewage using fossil fuels is responsible for up to 89 % of the global warming that
systems, garbage floating in the water, and other factors (Fida et al., has already occurred (Peydayesh et al., 2022). Massive volumes of water
2022a). are necessary for the manufacturing process of marble, which directly
SDG 6.1, established in 2015, calls for universal access to safe, reli impacts a wide variety of water systems; without suitable treatments,
able, and sustainably produced drinking water protected from contam ecosystems and aquatic plant and animal life suffer (Ahmad et al.,
ination by microorganisms and chemicals (Lindmark et al., 2022). SDG 2021). There has been a significant rise in the focus of environmental
6, one of the 17 global objectives issued within the framework of the UN researchers on the issue of water contamination due to the contamina
Agenda for 2030, aims to tackle this problem by establishing strategies tion of water sources and the resulting freshwater scarcity in Pakistan
to “ensure availability and sustainable management of sanitation and (Khattak et al., 2021).
Fig. 5. An overview of SGDs; the effects of floods on SGDs. Flood significantly affects sustainability; response and solution for SGDs balancing. The information
shown in the figure originated from the scientific literature.
8
The International Monetary Fund’s data also shows Pakistan has the society, and other groups.
third worst water crisis of all countries (Zhang et al., 2020). Historically, When managing water resources, reservoirs are crucial because they
per capita water availability in 1951 was 5260 m3; in 2016, it was 1000 allow for better flood prevention, hydroelectric power production, and
m3 (Ranjan, 2020). According to the United Nations Development Pro water distribution (Liu et al., 2020). Simultaneously, the risk of floods is
gram’s analysis, it is expected to be 500 m3 in 2025, an absolute water rising due to changes in precipitation patterns, which endangers current
scarcity line. Various factors contribute to Pakistan’s water dilemma, surface water systems and challenges water supply security (He et al.,
including climate change, industrialization, population expansion, the 2021). However, rising human water use has led to water shortages in
aging canal system, a shortage of dams, and inappropriate water dis many parts of the world, including India, Pakistan, the western and
tribution. Good governance, water recycling units, the development of central United States, northeast China, Iran, the Middle East, North
new dams, technological advancements in irrigation systems, and re Africa, and Southern Europe (Wada et al., 2016). An Reservoir main
ductions in home water use are all potential solutions to the problems tenance is an integral part of water resource management and planning
outlined above. According to UNDP one out of six people cannot access (Jain and Singh, 2003). To effectively generate renewable energy and
fresh water (Dinka, 2018). Pakistan is the fourth highest water-using control water usage, reservoirs and their associated dams are essential
county in the world. The country cannot give fresh water to every (Song et al., 2022a). During the second half of the 20th century, many
doorstep, and it can be concluded that it needs to take stern steps to reservoirs were built to meet the increasing demand for water con
accommodate people in this regard. There are variations in the supply of sumption and management from humans, and this boom in reservoir
water from region to region. As a result, the provinces need to work impoundments may continue for the next several decades (Liu et al.,
together to establish confidence to find a solution. 2020; Song et al., 2022a). It is possible to build a dam of adequate height
and designate storage capacity for each use if the geological and topo
4.2.1. Building dams graphic aspects of the dam site and the financial resources accessible for
Similarly, authorities must take and thoroughly investigate the root the project permit it (Jain and Singh, 2003). Numerous environmental
causes of the widespread destruction of dams caused by recent floods; an and social consequences may result from dam building and reservoir
objective investigation is required. There is a pressing need for peda impounded (Song et al., 2022a). Flood defense aims to prevent flooding
gogical research in this area. According to the International Commission by constructing barriers like levees, floodwalls, and dams (Kuang and
on Large Dams (ICOLD), the top three causes of dam failure are mal Liao, 2022). Historically, authorities have frequently used the threat of
functioning spillways (34 %), defective foundations (30 %), and leaking eminent domain to force individuals and communities to relocate so that
pipes and seepage (28 %) (Benito and Vázquez-Tarrío, 2021). new dams, highways, and other forms of infrastructure can be developed
Pakistan is facing a dramatic increase in its water deficit. The last few (Mortreux et al., 2018).
decades have been particularly devastating for Pakistan. How dire
would the consequences be for Pakistan if it did nothing to address this 4.2.2. Compromising with India for the Indus waters treaty
problem? Many causes have fueled the fire. In Pakistan, there has been a Previous findings partially corroborate earlier studies that link
40 % reduction in water supply (Shakir et al., 2010). The combined climate variability to armed conflict through its effects on water and
storage capacity of the Terbela and Mangla dams is only 30 days yield (Xie et al., 2022). Assessing economic reliance and risk for inter
(Basharat, 2019; Briscoe et al., 2005). Compared with America and national rivers as an indicator of urban and agricultural (irrigation)
India, water storage is 900 and 120–220 days (Basharat, 2019; Briscoe operations demonstrates the economic significance of large rivers (Best,
et al., 2005), respectively. With the notion that modern technology can 2019). If polluted water moves over international borders, it is a
address water management issues, towns in developed nations have transjurisdictional concern (Yuan et al., 2022). As previously discussed,
built Flood Control Infrastructure (FCI), such as channelization, levees, transboundary water pollution is a major contributor to environmental
and dams, in response to riverine floods (Liao, 2014). China’s water deterioration and armed conflict in river basins (Yuan et al., 2022). Still,
sector operated 86,554 hydrometric stations as of the end of 2013, the link between climate change and armed conflict in South Asia is
including 4195 hydrological stations, 9330 water level stations, 43,028 poorly understood and has received little attention (Xie et al., 2022).
rainfall stations, 1912 soil moisture stations, 16,407 groundwater Land litigation, or judicial adjudication, serves to resolve land disputes
monitoring stations, 24,518 flood-drought-reporting stations, and 1300 by analyzing the parties’ rationales and reducing tensions in their
hydrological forecasting stations (Z. Liu, 2016). In 2013, the Chinese interpersonal interactions (Shafi et al., 2022). Reestablishing diplomatic
Loess Plateau (CLP) had 58,446 check dams with storage capacities >10, connections with India might help Pakistan deal with this issue because
000 m3 (Zeng et al., 2020). Pakistan ranks third among countries with India illegally builds dams on rivers, violating the Indus Water Treaty. If
severe water shortages, per the IMF (Nabi et al., 2019). In addition, there relations between India and Pakistan are improved, the current tense
is a water reservoir in the country. More and more water will need to be situation may be alleviated.
stored; hence, more dams will need to be built. Pakistan receives 144
million-acre feet (MAF) flows but can only store 14.46 MAF (Basharat, 5. Temperature
2019) because of inadequate infrastructure. Pakistan has a significant
water shortage because of a lack of dams. Natural calamities, such as Earth is in turbulent waters as it remains in one crisis after another.
floods, impact Pakistan almost every year. Due to the lack of dams, Multiple organizations have kept track of global temperatures since the
cannot store water. Dam construction has obstacles due to poor gover late 19th century. Bythe 1980s, the Goddard Institute for Space Studies
nance and political instability. The controversial Kala Bagh dam, plan (GISS) had already concluded that a warming trend was underway.
ned to be built in the Mian Wali region, has been faced with skepticism Using the most up-to-date data, they conclude that the global average
from politicians for a quarter of a century. Land disputes in the Global temperature has risen by at least 0.8 ◦ C since 1951 and will continue to
South are caused by urban land invasion into rural and peri‑urban areas, rise throughout the 21st century (Sanz-Pérez et al., 2016). Changes in
aided by weak land governance and frail institutions, especially in global air and ocean temperatures, widespread snow and ice melting,
Bangladesh, China, Botswana, India, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Zambia and an increase in mean sea levels are all manifestations of the ongoing
(Shafi et al., 2022). Pakistan cannot solve its water problem without trend of climate change (Salimi and Al-Ghamdi, 2020). In cities, the
building dams. Dams are urgently necessary for capturing and storing threats of severe heat are increased by the fact that temperatures
runoff from rain and flooding. It is the responsibility of the authorities to continually rise substantially, day and night; the Urban Heat Island
take the initiative, as Pakistan lies on the edge of catastrophe. However, (UHI) effect is a cause of high-temperature anomalies in urban areas
inter-provincial disagreement, an obstacle to building new dams and because of alterations to land use and cover as well as the growth of the
distributing water, also requires action by lawmakers, stakeholders, civil urban form (Muse et al., 2022).
9
In addition to the many other effects of climate change, food inse Many plant species are particularly vulnerable to changes in tempera
curity directly results from natural disasters, including heatwaves, ture, and rising global temperatures have already had a negative impact
droughts, floods, and wildfires (Waseem et al., 2022). Record high on agriculture and food production (Chandio et al., 2020). Loss of
temperatures were seen in numerous nations, including Australia, vegetation cover and other land uses significantly impact land surface
Canada, India, Italy, Oman, Turkey, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom; temperature (LST), leading to a rise in surface temperature, and rises in
meanwhile, wildfires wreaked havoc in Canada, the United States, LST have been observed worldwide, particularly in urban settings (Khan
Greece, Algeria, Italy, Spain, and Türkiye, and British Columbia expe et al., 2022). Grassland greening has biophysical effects on temperatures
rienced record high temperatures of almost 50 ◦ C, killing 570 people; in due to changes in land surface attributes (Shen et al., 2022). However,
2022, floods in Australia, Canada, China, Malaysia, Pakistan, South the rapid peak of environmental catastrophes like floods, extreme rains,
Sudan, and western Europe killed thousands, relocated hundreds of and heat waves is on the rise, leading to the sudden disappearance of
thousands, and led billions of dollars in losses (Romanello et al., 2022). people’s means of subsistence, the failure of crops, and the destruction of
Over the period between 1880 and 2012, the Earth’s mean temperature homes and businesses (Salik et al., 2020).
increased by 0.85 ◦ C (Jamshed et al., 2020b). In April, record-breaking Increasing global average temperature since the pre-industrial era
temperatures of more than 40 ◦ C hit Pakistan (Fida et al., 2022a). The could end human civilization without immediate action. According to a
gradual decline in agricultural productivity, degradation of ecosystem recent IPCC report, global temperatures might rise by as much as 3 ◦ C by
services, shifting of cropping zones, rising crop water demand, decrease 2100 if the issue continues unchecked. Regarding GHG emissions, the
in soil fertility, and reduction in revenue from agriculture and labor IPCC placed Pakistan at 140th, the 8th most susceptible country glob
costs are all being caused by slow-onset climate events like a mean in ally. Pakistan contributes less than 0.8 % of global emissions (Zuberi and
crease in temperatures and sea levels (Salik et al., 2020). Ali, 2015), yet the country is experiencing a blaze of problems due to
Many low- and middle-income nations, especially those with large climate change. Changing ecosystems and the extinction of entire spe
populations, are more susceptible to frequent heatwaves, yet they cies of plants and animals result from the planet’s inability to keep up
continue to use outdated high-temperature forecast warnings although with the rising average global temperature and the frequency of extreme
they are unable to sustain the health of people for a variety of issues (Li weather events. North and south polar glaciers are melting, forest fires
et al., 2022). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change are becoming more common, and precipitation levels are decreasing.
(UNFCCC) acknowledges climate inequity through the concept of shared Temperatures and weather patterns are constantly shifting due to
but distinct duties, but it does not account for the faster growth in climate change.
extreme temperatures that most low-income countries are currently
experiencing as a consequence of global warming (Herold et al., 2017).
In 2021, record-high nationwide temperatures and a rise in catastrophic 5.1. Glaciers
storms posed a continuing threat to the health and wellness of the
Chinese people due to climate change (Cai et al., 2022). The average In contrast, 68 % of glaciers would vanish if global warming per
temperature increased more in the north of China during droughts than sisted under the current warming scenario of 2.7 ◦ C (Crace et al., 2023).
in the south or east (Wang et al., 2022b). In the years under review Glacier and snow melt caused by a heat wave also significantly impact
(2003, 2010, 2015, and 2018), annual losses related to heatwaves in (Fida et al., 2022a). Researchers determined that even in the most
Europe amounted to 0.3 % to 0.5 % of European GDP, whereas the hopeful scenario, where temperatures only rise by 1.5 ◦ C, 49 % of gla
average loss throughout 1981–2010 was estimated to be close to 0.2 % ciers would melt away (Crace et al., 2023). According to previous
(García-León et al., 2021). It has become clear to researchers that cli research, solar heating generated by black carbon could be roughly
matic conditions significantly impact society and that human societies similar to the warming by CO2 in melting snowpacks and glaciers in the
are particularly susceptible to significant and sustained temperature high Himalayan region (Cong et al., 2015). To maintain a steady global
shifts (Zhang et al., 2011). As shown in Fig. 6, there is a significant average temperature, human activities that contribute to net emissions
possibility that the global average temperature will rise in the coming of CO2 (including energy services, industrial output, land use, and
years (WMO, 2022). agriculture) must approach zero (Davis et al., 2018). Forecasts at both
Increasingly severe weather threatens agricultural supply chains, local and worldwide levels indicate that temperatures will rise over the
impacting how much and what kinds of crops are planted (Stein, 2022). future decades due to increasing levels of greenhouse gases (He et al.,
2022). Around 13.8 % of the world’s population will be exposed to
Fig. 6. Global mean temperature from 1850 to 1900 ( ◦ C), (Reprinted from Ref. WMO (2022), with permission of the publisher).
10
catastrophic heat waves twice a decade under a 1.5 ◦ C global mean 5.2. Flood
temperature increase above pre-industrial levels (Turek-Hankins et al.,
2021). As a result of present and future climate change, the hydrological
Heatwaves have a devastating effect on humans on Earth (Li et al., cycle is becoming more intense, resulting in more precipitation and
2022). During a severe heatwave in France in July 2006, the runoff variability (He et al., 2021). Extreme precipitation patterns will
Heat-Health Watch Warning System saved over 4300 lives within 18 likely shift due to a warmer environment (Alborzi et al., 2022). Water
days (Li et al., 2022). Over the last five decades, the oceans have availability is seasonally and geographically determined by precipita
absorbed (~89 %) of the extra heat added to the planet, with the tion, evaporation, and runoff (Zhu et al., 2015). Rising sea levels and
remaining (~6 %) going towards warming the land, the cryosphere, and more frequent and extreme precipitation contribute to this trend, mak
the atmosphere (Matthews et al., 2022). There is a potential for an ing flooding more likely and severe (Alderman et al., 2012). A more
annual increase from 275 million people to 1.22 billion under a 3 ◦ C widespread water cycle disruption can be expected as the world’s
warming scenario (Szewczyk et al., 2021). Most floods in China are average temperature and climate continue to rise, affecting the health
generated by rainstorms combined with coastal storm surges; however, and longevity of ecosystems dependent on water (Arora and Mishra,
certain floods in western China are vulnerable to mixed-type floods from 2022). Changes in the timing and amount of lake water availability
snow and glacier melting and local storms (Liu, 2016). Over 100,000 resulted from the drastically altered hydrologic system, which included
km2 of glaciers can be found in the Himalayas and TP, making them the accelerated glacier mass loss, disrupted snowmelt dynamics, and altered
most incredible ice mass outside the polar area (Cong et al., 2015). New precipitation and evapotranspiration patterns (Song et al., 2022a).
research reveals that the size and implications of glacial loss are larger Previous research has found that air temperature changes, specifically
than previously assumed and that half of the world’s glaciers will have the significant increase in air temperature after the mid-20th century,
melted by 2100, even if humankind adheres to targets outlined in the are the primary cause of the observed warming trends in lakes (Fan
Paris Climate Agreement (Crace et al., 2023). et al., 2022).
Climate change brought on by human-caused increases in heat- However, in a monsoon environment, such long-range forecasting
trapping GHGs already has far-reaching consequences on the planet’s with the necessary assurance is not feasible for rain-fed rivers; hence, a
ecosystems. Sea ice is melting, sea level is rising faster than projected, calculated risk is made when providing storage space for flood man
and heat waves are lasting longer and getting hotter, all effects scientists agement (Jain and Singh, 2003). Increases in the annual number of
have warned about for years due to global warming. Heat waves like precipitation extremes are predicted to occur across the Mediterranean
these are now one hundred times more likely due to climate change. In region as the climate warms in the coming years (Jamshed et al., 2020a).
2022, devastating floods swept over the country. The main reasons were This is particularly true in dry and semiarid climates when precipitation
climate change-induced changes in precipitation patterns and the is infrequent, and evaporation rates are high (Li et al., 2018). Numerous
melting of glaciers, as shown in Fig. 7 (Pakistan Meteorological precipitation storms in Europe in recent decades have lasted for days and
Department, 2022). About one-third of the country was underwater. caused significant floods (Du et al., 2022). The western United States
Seasonal patterns, particularly precipitation and air temperature, are (WUS) is particularly susceptible to the adverse socioeconomic effects of
being altered by climate change because of its persistence and vari extreme precipitation occurrences (Huang and Stevenson, 2021). North
ability. Therefore, the glaciers in the Hunza region melted due to the America, much of Europe, and the larger Eurasian region (including
heat wave. Also, the outcomes of these climate changes are very drastic. Russia, Pakistan, China, and Southeast Asia) were all hit by devastating
Droughts, heat waves, and monsoon downpours of gigantic scale are all weather disasters (McMichael and Lindgren, 2011). Increasingly
due to global warming. The meteorological department reports that the frequent and catastrophic floods caused by heavy rainfall are the most
province of Sindh has received three times the usual amount of common natural hazard globally, impacting most nations regularly, and
precipitation. flash floods in the mountains significantly risk human life and property
Fig. 7. Significant climate events, modified from Pakistan Meteorological Department (2022).
11
(Zeng et al., 2022). With the Great Mississippi River Flood of 1927 During the monsoons, this is the same case in India (Bador and
remaining fresh in people’s minds, the U.S. Congress passed the Flood Alexander, 2022). India has become increasingly vulnerable to flooding
Control Act of 1928, allocating a record-breaking $325 million for levee due to climate change-induced increases in the frequency and intensity
building and maintenance (Mach et al., 2022). of intense precipitation events (Dimitrova and Muttarak, 2020). For
Landslides are often considered the most prevalent disaster on the instance, heat waves and droughts in India in 2002 and 2009 wreaked
Planet (Qasim et al., 2021). Prior research widely acknowledges the havoc on the country’s agriculture, health care, and economic sectors
connection between precipitation and the likelihood of floods (Islam and and led to depleted underground water reserves and power outages
Chowdhury, 2024; Karpouza et al., 2023). Heavy precipitation levels are (Turek-Hankins et al., 2021). Climate warming was 30 times more likely
considered a crucial trigger for landslides and floods, which are pre to cause a heatwave that hit India and Pakistan in March and April 2022
dominant catastrophes that influence individuals and the financial (Romanello et al., 2022); the temperature reached 51 ◦ C. The TP is
sector (Youssef et al., 2021). The soil erosion rate is primarily influenced crucial to developing the Asian monsoon system and Northern Hemi
by climate (precipitation) over the long term (Wang et al., 2021b). The sphere climatology due to the contrast in thermal heating across the
World Bank estimates that 300 million people, or about 5 % of the continent and ocean (Cong et al., 2015). Thermoselectric power and
world’s population, reside in a region of 3.7 million km2 that is hydropower account for over 98 % of global electricity production.
vulnerable to landslides (Alcántara-Ayala et al., 2017). Mid-2010 was an These methods are highly delicate regarding water and temperature
unprecedented time in that part of Eurasia due to the extraordinary (Salimi and Al-Ghamdi, 2020). Assessments of annual
combination of the severity of flooding (Pakistan and China), landslides temperature-related mortality hazards in current and future climates are
(China), extreme heatwaves (Russia, China, Vietnam), and wildfires urgently needed (Li et al., 2013). In Pakistan, there has yet to be an
(Russia) (McMichael and Lindgren, 2011). Additionally, lithology is approach to managing how future changes in precipitation totals and
widely acknowledged as one of the most critical elements causing extremes will occur. Fig. 9 depicts recent changes in flood adaptation,
landslides and is sensitive to a primary driving force, such as rainfall or including an emphasis on all aspects of objectives vital to triumphant
seismic stimulation, for their occurrence (Atta-ur-Rahman et al., 2011). actions, a move from controlling static problems to changing hazards,
Urban flooding in the industrialized world is typically caused by and an awareness of various legislators and circumstances helpful to
climate change, storms, flash floods, and extended heavy rainfall flood risk management (Mach et al., 2022).
(Hamidi et al., 2020). Extreme precipitation, the rapid and severe Consequently, Pakistan has suffered a lot in damages incurred by
melting of snow and glaciers, or the combined action of rainwater and floods. In retrospect, the National Disaster Management Authority was
melting snow, are the most common causes of flash floods (Mahmood set due to natural calamities, particularly floods. According to the report
and Rahman, 2019). Due to its mountainous terrain and high monsoon of IPCC, since 2008, devastating floods and storms have forced more
rains, Pakistan is prone to flooding (Roth et al., 2022). The heavy than 20 million people from their homes. In recent events, Pakistan has
monsoon rains in 2022 have caused devastating floods along the Indus faced major flood damages in 2008, 2010, 2016, 2019, 2021, and most
River in Pakistan (Arora and Mishra, 2022). For instance, in the recently, in July 2022. These damages have occurred due to infra
north-eastern and western hilly regions, flash floods typically occur after structure failure and poor policy implementation. A pertinacious effort
significant rainfall, causing severe loss of agriculture and residences in is required to identify areas prone to flooding, and remedial actions must
the months before the monsoon (Leal Filho et al., 2022). The monsoon be taken. Having a lessons-learned register, the Government should
season has extended longer than usual, and the rains are forecast to prioritize making water reservoirs in the areas where water levels
continue until at least the middle of September (Fida et al., 2022a). cannot be controlled only by the camaraderie of localities.
Flooding caused by the worst monsoons in Pakistan’s history affected 33 The question that needs to be answered is why state-level institutions
million people (Qamer et al., 2022) and killed 1500 people (Qamer could not succeed in the first phase of the disaster cycle: prevention and
et al., 2023) in the country instantaneously in July and August (Fig. 8b). mitigation. In this cycle phase, the institutions are supposed to prevent
In Pakistan, the national average rainfall for August 2022 was (+243 %) or mitigate the level of such disasters or floods up to some early level so
above average, with heavy rains in Balochistan (+590 %) and Sindh that their destructive potential is reduced or even prevented from
(+726 %), the wettest August on record. There has been roughly eight becoming as severe as it was during the floods of 2010 or more recently.
times as much rain in Sindh Province as usual for August (Fig. 8a)
(Qamer et al., 2023, 2022). The subtropical monsoon climate of the
country is characterized by hot, humid summers, heavy rains, mildly
cool winters, and clear seasonal transitions.
Fig. 8. (a) Rainfall estimates for August 2022 in Pakistan, (b) Flood extent in Pakistan on 28 August 2022, (Reprinted from Ref. Qamer et al. (2023), with permission
of the publisher).
12
Fig. 9. Flood control to flood adaptation, (Reprinted from Ref. Mach et al. (2022), with permission of the publisher).
6. Climate change Scientists believe it can be managed locally or globally using conven
tional techniques that have already been put into practice in various
6.1. Implement the goals of climate change contexts. Deforestation, pollution, GHGs, and per capita carbon emis
sions are among the key drivers of rising temperatures, albeit they are
Pakistan’s contribution to global warming gas emissions is negligible far from the sole contributors. However, volcanoes contribute to high
compared to developed nations, less than 1 %. Table 1 below outlines temperatures and have a noticeable effect on the surface environment.
Pakistan’s historical and projected emission levels. On the contrary, the The rising number of polluting vehicles and people also contributes to
United States, China, and Japan are the major emitters. To sum up, air pollution. The use of automobiles is another contributor to rising CO2
climate change is a critical issue that demands tremendous attention to levels.
cut emissions, especially in rich countries, or else the world will soon Essential steps towards climate change mitigation include creating
face catastrophic consequences. digital technologies to track energy consumption and greenhouse gas
In addition, the sixth IPCC Assessment Report predicts that as global emissions (Zhang et al., 2022). There are many interconnected themes in
warming increases, extreme events on continents like Asia will become the UNFCCC, including loss and damage, resources needed for climate
more common (Leal Filho et al., 2022). The current flood catastrophe in action, and the global stocktake, all of which are strengthened by a
Pakistan, which has taken approximately 1600 lives, is a sobering better understanding of the limits and constraints of adaptation (Thomas
reminder of the harsh and terrible impacts of global warming on the et al., 2021). Through photosynthesis, grasslands can transform carbon
environment (Raimi et al., 2021). Many factors contribute to this. dioxide into organic matter, reducing global warming, and grasslands
can produce oxygen and store energy simultaneously (Shen et al., 2022).
Since global warming and rising sea levels affect practically every so
Table 1
cioeconomic sector, Pakistan is especially vulnerable to the conse
Existing and future emissions of Pakistan, (Reprinted from Ref. Abas et al.
(2017), with permission of the publisher).
quences of change and variability.
Global warming does not personally blame anyone, but each thing is
Total Emissions 2011 2020 2030 2040 2050
starting to worsen individually. Undoubtedly, the industrialization
GHG (Mt CO2eq) 347 557 1046 2156 4621 process and multinational companies release higher temperatures than
Energy 176 295 560 1250 2730
ordinary citizens. So, the government or well-being post-holder should
% Share 50.6 52.9 53.5 58.0 59.1
Agriculture 134 210 408 812 1765
take a feasible step that helps decrease temperature so that it cannot
% Share 38.7 37.7 39.0 37.7 38.2 affect Flora and Fauna. We need to take the feasible steps to solve this
Industry 20 30 52 61 75 serious problem. Everyone can participate in decreasing pollution,
% Share 5.8 5.4 5.0 2.8 1.6 whether government, state, or ordinary citizens. A citizen can also
Land use, land-use change, and 10 13 15 20 35
decrease pollution by making specific rules within each precinct, like
forestry
% Share 2.9 2.3 1.4 0.9 0.8 transportation. Through transport does not come clean air. For that, it
Waste 7 9 11 13 16 should be planting more and more. Trees absorb CO2 and green gasses.
% Share 1.9 1.6 1.1 0.6 0.3 This impacts human health, and they should avoid taking the place of
13
companies, factories, and agencies within living areas. Switching from Funding
fossil fuels to renewable energy sources can reduce global warming.
Smart transport systems that use solar, wind, and nuclear energy for This study was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
residential and commercial uses are the answer to this worldwide issue. China (41773147, 41273149).
Currently, 75 % of France’s energy comes from nuclear power (Hecht,
2009). Only 27 % of Pakistan’s energy comes from renewable sources CRediT authorship contribution statement
like hydel (Wang et al., 2022a). According to the World Economic
Forum, Pakistan could meet its energy demand by using 0.7 % solar Muhammad Adnan: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Vali
potential. The southern areas of the nation are also ideal for wind power. dation, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data
To ensure a healthy ecosystem and prevent a climatic disaster, Pakistan curation, Conceptualization. Baohua Xiao: Writing – review & editing,
should completely access the potential of renewable energy sources. Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
Shaheen Bibi: Writing – review & editing. Peiwen Xiao: Writing –
7. Limitations and advantages review & editing. Peng Zhao: Writing – review & editing. Haiyan
Wang: Writing – review & editing.
This review has several limitations, which we point out. First, we
only focused on Pakistan’s environmental issues but should have high
Declaration of competing interest
lighted the primary drivers of climate change. For this reason, inade
quate consideration may have been given to technologies with potential
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
uses in low-resource settings. Second, there is a need for primary data on
existing issues in Pakistan. Third, it would be quite enlightening to
Data availability
investigate the external and internal environmental funding uses qual
itatively. Fourth, numerous earlier investigations have looked ahead to
The data that has been used is confidential.
future research on future model rates of climate change robustly. Last,
researchers and practitioners in this sector face significant challenges,
primarily the need to establish strategies and approaches to public
engagement on climate change that go beyond mainstream advertising. Acknowledgements
8. Conclusion The authors wish to thank the Alliance of International Science Or
ganizations (ANSO). The authors wish to thank the State Key Laboratory
The melting of glaciers, cyclone storm surges, tropical disease and of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese
epidemics, flash floods or inundations, droughts, and unpredictable Academy of Sciences. The authors wish to thank the anonymous re
monsoons are all consequences of climate change that threaten the na viewers and the editor for their comments and suggestions.
tion’s food, water, and energy security. Authorities indicate that climate
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Environmental Challenges 15 (2024) 100887

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Addressing current climate issues in Pakistan: An opportunity for a

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