CHAPTER ONE

1. Conceptualization of Social Work Profession

1.1. Definition of Social Work

Activity:
Briefly explain the meaning of Social Work?
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW), of America, has defined social work as
follows:
“Social work is the professional activity of helping individuals, groups, or communities, to
enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions
favourable to that goal.”
This statement provides a concise one –sentence “dictionary definition” of the profession. It
draws important boundaries around social work.
First, social work is considered as a professional activity. Professional activity requires a
particular body of knowledge, values, and skills as well as a discrete purpose that guides one’s
practice activities. When practice is judged professional, community sanction to perform these
tasks is assumed to be present, and the profession, in turn, is expected to be accountable to the
public for the quality of services provided. Therefore, the definition implies social work has
fulfilled these requirements. Katherine Kendall (1978) argues that the uniqueness of social work
as a professional activity rests on its capacity to:
Assess the nature of the need and the problem, to estimate the capacity of the person to handle
the problem, to foster every inner strength of the person toward the goal of finding his own
solution and to utilize all the outer resources of the environment and the community which might
be of value in this problem-solving endeavour.
Second, the definition captures the uniqueness of social work. It makes clear that social workers
serve a range of client system that include individuals, families, or other house hold units,
groups, organizations, neighbour hoods, communities and even larger unities of society. For
social work, identification of one client system is difficult because client or target of practice
activity may range from an individual to a state or a nation. The unique activities of social
workers are directed towards helping all those systems interact more effectively and require
professional education as preparation.

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Finally, the last part of the definition concerns social workers dual focus on person and
environment. Social workers help people enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning.
At the same time they work to change societal conditions that may help or hinder people from
improving their social functioning. Here lies another uniqueness of social work. Its concern with
the fit between individuals and their social circumstances is a distinctive characteristic of social
work and provides its foundation as a discipline in its own right. Whereas some professions
focus on changing the person and others on changing the environment, social works attention is
directed to the connection between person and environment.
According to NASW, the primary mission of social work is to enhance human well-being and
help meet the basic needs of all people, with particular attention to promoting social justice,
addressing the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, or living in
poverty. Social workers help people identify and manage the environmental forces that create
and contribute to and address problems in living. Social work is an activity that seeks to help
individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities engage resources that will alleviate
human problems.
The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and
the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Social work is a profession
devoted to responding to the needs of people who experience serious social problems and to
addressing the stress that these problems can create.

Social workers summarily can be described as professional helpers designated by society

to aid people who are distressed, disadvantaged, disabled, deviant, defeated or dependent. They
are also charged to help people lessen their chances of being poor, neglected, abused, divorced,
delinquent, criminal, alienated or mad. Indeed, the chief mandate of the social work profession is
to work with people who are disenfranchised and oppressed. Social workers are organized into
local, national, continental and international professional bodies.
1.2. Conceptualization of Social Work
Conceptualization of social work profession can be seen from such points as fields of practice,
practice setting, agency type, function performed, client population served, methods used,
practice goals, service provided, and types of presenting problems.
On the basis of the fields of practice, social work can be health, mental health, HIV, disability,
etc., whereas the practice setting of social work profession can be community, courts, schools,

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and so forth. By the agency type, social work can be categorized as NGOS, government,
association, etc. In the other dimensions, we can conceptualize social work as direct services,
supervision, coordination, etc, based on the functions while on the basis of client population
served, we can have such varieties as homeless people, OVC, people with mental illness, etc.
Still the methods used can help to conceptualize social work as social group work, case work,
community work, and the like whilst the goals of the practice enable us to evaluate social work
whether it is intended to address the issue of prevention, problem resolution, symptom
alleviation, development, or transformative. The services provided also contribute to classified
the profession as mental therapy, case management, or discharge planning; and finally the types
of the problems presented by the social worker can help us to see the profession as focusing on
marital discord, depression, unemployment, and so forth.
1.3. The Philosophy of Social Work or the Why of Social Work
Life means to face the demands of day to day life and realize the self. By life tasks we mean the
responses people make as they face the demands made up on the various life situations, such is
growing up in a family, entering school or work, raising a family, earning their daily bread,
working in the industry, problems relating to job, facing illness, accidents and death.
People are dependent on social systems to realize their aspirations and to cope with their life
tasks. In order to realize their life tasks people have to interact with three kinds of resource
systems in the social environment
1. Informal or natural resource system consists of family, friends, neighbors, coworkers, etc
2. Formal resource system consists of membership in organizations, trade union organizations or
other socio cultural organizations
3. Social resource system such as schools, hospitals, housing societies, police, banks etc
Why people are unable to obtain the resources, services or opportunities in the resource
systems, they need to cope with their life tasks and realize their aspirations?
1. A needed resource or service may be scarce or may not exist or may not provide appropriate
help to people who need it.
2. People may not know the existence of a resource system or may be hesitant to turn it for help
for several reasons like distance, corruption, delay or poor quality etc
3. The policies and procedures of the resource system may inhibit/prevent it access (eg.
eligibility criteria, gender, etc)

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Hence, the purpose of social work is to enable the people to use the social resources to meet their
life tasks.
Imagine a society without human suffering. If the world were a perfect place, it would provide
for every one warm and safe housing, an adequate supply of nutritious food, good health care
and love and caring from friends and family. It would be a world with minimal stress, crime and
suffering. All people would find their lives satisfying and fulfilling. But, human societies are not
perfect. Social problems emerge that require societal solutions, and human needs arise that must
be satisfied. Interrupting normal developmental processes by personal crises, poverty,
unemployment, poor health and inadequate education jeopardizes the well-being of individuals.
The prevalence of inequity, discrimination and other forms of social injustice compromises the
well-being of society.
Social work exists because the world is less than perfect. Social workers serve people and the
institutions of society as they confront this imperfection. They respond to both the demands of
living in a changing society and the call for social justice to promote citizen’s rights. In practice,
social workers address social concerns that threaten the structures of society and redress social
conditions that adversely affect the well-being of people and society.
The basis of all social work is the deficiency of every legal organization of society. A perfectly
functioning organization of the whole society, a social mechanism embracing all mankind would
not leave room for social work, but such a mechanism is unimaginable. It is prevented by two
factors, one which is rooted in what we call today in philosophical jargon “man’s existential
predicament” his insufficiency. The second factor is rooted in man’s existential nature, the
uniqueness of every individual and every situation.
1.4. Is Social Work an Art, Science and Profession?
Social work can also be defined as an art, a science, a profession that helps people to solve
personal, group, family, and community problems and to attain satisfying personal, group and
community organization, administration and research. The major focus is to help people to solve
and prevent problems in human relationships and on enriching the way of living through
improved human interaction. Certainly, the main focus of the social worker is upon helping
people to improve or strength their social functioning, their ability to interact and relate to others.
Social work is an art; it requires great skills to understand people and to help them to help
themselves. The art is usually brought by the person to the helping profession and while it can be

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coached and refined, if a student wants to be a social worker did not have basic social skills and a
sincere desire to help others, it is impossible to learn through an educational process.
It is a beginning science because of its problem-solving method and its attempt to be objective in
ascertaining fact and in developing principles and operational concepts.

1.5. Values and Principles in Social Work

1.5.1. The Nature of Values
Unlike knowledge, which explains what is, values express how things ought to be or how people
ought to behave. Rokeach more precisely defines a value as “a type of belief, centrally located in
one’s total belief system, about how one ought or ought not to behave, or about some end-state
of existence worth or not worth attaining.” Values are beliefs, preferences or assumptions about
what is desirable or good for men. Values are the implicit and explicit ideas about what we
cherish as ideal or preferable. Consequently, values determine which goals and actions we
evaluate as “good.” In short, values guide our thinking about how we should behave and what we
want to accomplish. Values define norms or guidelines for behavior. Our values shape our
beliefs and attitudes, and, in turn, our beliefs and attitudes shape our values.
At the heart of social work are its values. Values are the cornerstone of social work. Values are
foundational to social work practice. Thus, social work is a value-based profession that
incorporates “a constellation of preferences concerning what merits doing and how it should be
done”.

Professional Values
To achieve the objectives of the profession, social workers must be responsible partners in the
change process. Their professional activities should be permeated with the values of the
profession, founded on the purpose of social work, and guided by professional standards of
ethical practice. The profession of social work is based on the values of service, social and
economic justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, and
integrity and competence in practice. Social work values focus on three general areas: values
about people, values about society and values that inform professional behavior.

Values about People

The common values of the profession reflect social worker’s fundamental ideas about the nature
of human kind and the nature of change-“the inherent dignity and worth of the person,” “access

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to needed information, services and resources” and “equality of opportunity.” Valuing the
dignity and worth of all people regardless of their situations in life, cultural heritage, life-styles
or beliefs is essential to practicing social work. Professional social workers maintain an
unconditional positive regard for others by respecting diversity and accepting variations in
personal life-styles. Social workers advocate clients’ rights to access services and participate in
decision making. They integrate the principles of self-determination, non-judgmentalism and
confidentiality in to their interactions with clients.
Values about Society
Social workers champion social justice and value the democratic process. Social workers assume
responsibility for confronting inequities and social injustice. They are professionally committed
to making social institutions more humane and responsive to human needs. Improving social
programs and refining social policies reflect practitioners’ commitment to improving societal
conditions in ways that actualize social justice.
Values about Professional behaviour
Values guide the professional activities of social workers in their efforts with client systems.
Social workers value client systems’ strengths and competencies and work in partnership with
clients to develop creative solutions. Social workers also value quality in their practice and
continually examine their own practice effectiveness. Additionally, they take responsibility for
ethical conduct and continual professional development.
The following values are usually listed as basic to social work practice.
1. The individual is the prime concern of this society.
2. There is interdependence between individuals in the society.
3. They have social responsibility for one another.
4. There are human needs common to each person, yet each person is essentially unique and
different from others.
5. An essential attribute of a democratic society is the realization of the full potential of each
individual and the assumption of his social responsibility through active participation in the
society.
6. Society has a responsibility to provide ways in which obstacles to this self-realization (i.e.
disequilibrium between the individuals and his environment) can be overcome or prevented.

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Generally, there are two overarching values which shape the attitude of all social work
practitioners, regardless of their particular field of practice, while their activities are directed by
the purposes of the profession. These values are: Human Dignity and worth and Social justice
1. Human Dignity And Worth
The value concept of “human dignity” and “worth” reflects a particular view of human kind
where social workers believe that all persons have inherent worth and dignity. This view implies
that human beings have a right a right to be respected and that social workers should not
discriminate among individuals based on considerations such as those related to race, ethnicity,
gender, or social-economic status. Respectful interaction with others affirms their sense of
dignity and worth. Effective social workers treat people with considerations, respect their
uniqueness, appreciate the validity of their perspectives and listen carefully to what they have to
say. Therefore the basic concept of this value in social work practice is, in providing societal
resources the dignity and individuality of individuals should be respected. And ultimately,
according people dignity and worth affords them the opportunities and resources of a just
society.
2. Social Justice
Refers to the manner in which society distributes resources among its members. Social justice is
an “ideal condition” in which all members of a society have the same basic rights, protection,
opportunities obligations and social benefits. Society has an obligation to ensure that people have
access to the resources, services and opportunities they need to meet various life tasks, alleviate
stress and realize their aspirations and values.
1.5.2. Social Work Principles
Activity:
What are the major principles in social work?
Social workers transform the abstract values of the profession in to principles for practice. Then
they translate these principles in to concrete actions in specific situations. Values abstractly
shape social workers ways of thinking and concretely direct their actions through principles for
social worker practice. Among these are the common principles are self-determination,
confidentiality, acceptance individualization, purposeful; expression affecting, non-judgmental
attitudes, objectivity, Controlled emotional involvement, access resources, and accountability.

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When social workers fail to operationalzing these principals, they victimize clients and
disempowered them. Conversely, upholding this practice principle facilitates empowerment.
1. Self – determination
Social workers believe that clients have the right to express their own opinions to act up on them,
as long as by so doing clients do not infringe on the rights of others. Self-determination draws
logically from belief in the inherent dignity of each person, i.e. if people have dignity, then it
follows that they should be permitted to determine their own lifestyles as far as possible.

2. Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the implicit or explicit agreement between a professional and a client that the
professional will maintain the private nature of information about the client. An absolute
implementation of this principle means that the professional will not share client disclosure with
anyone else, except when authorized by the client or required by law.

3) Acceptance
Acceptance implies that social workers understand client’s perspectives and welcome their
views. It also suggests building on client's strengths and recognizing the potential they each have
for growth and changes.

4) Individualization
Valuing individualization means recognizing that all human have a right “to be individuals as
and to be treated not just as a human being but as this human being with personal differences. All
people are unique and posses’ distinctive capacities. When social workers affirm client’s
individuality, they recognize and appreciate their unique qualities and individuals’ differences.
5) Non- Judgmental Attitude
The term non- judmentalism may be confusing. Non- Judgmentalism signifies social workers
non blaming attitudes and behaviors. Social workers do not judge others as good or bad, or
worthy or unworthy. However, social workers do makes professionals judgments or decisions
every day about alternative approaches and appropriates solutions among other issues. Stated in
other words, non- judgmental social work "excludes assigning guilt or innocence or degree of
clients’ responsibility for causation of the problems or needs but does includes making
evaluative judgments about the attitudes, standards or action of the clients.
6. Objectivity

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The practice principle of objectivity or examining situations without bias is closely related to non
judmentalism. To be objective, practitioners avoid injecting their personal feelings and
prejudices into their relationships with clients slanted judgments way cause social workers to
select or to encourage one out come over another in appropriately.

7. Access to Resource
Having access to resources is prerequisite for developing solutions. Limited resources reduce
options for solutions and without options people can't choose among alternatives. All people rely
on resources to meet their challenges and realize their potential.
8. Accountability
Means that social workers must be competent in the methods and techniques they employee in
their professionals practice. It means that workers take seriously their obligation to redress
discriminatory and in humane practices, act with unquestionable profession integrity and
implement sound practice and research protocols.

1.6. Social Work and other Disciplines

Activity:
Identify the similarity and differences of social work with other disciplines
1. Sociology and Social Work
How are sociology and social work related to each other? Admittedly they share much in
common but are also different in many ways.
Sociologists engage in the study of society, its organization and the phenomena arising out of
group relations. As such, professionals in this area contribute much to the awareness of human
interaction, including the establishment of values, norms, social organization, patterns of
behaviour, and social institutions. Sociologists are skilled in research techniques and
methodologies.
Sociology and social work are both interested in people, their interactions and understanding
these interactions. The sociologist is particularly concerned about how, when and why people
behave as they do in association with others. He/she aims to pinpoint the social problems,
conduct research, and do everything possible to understand interaction in human associations.
The sociologist is particularly interested in the why of human interaction.

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The social worker is interested in understanding people and how they behave in association with
others; but he/ she is particularly concerned with helping these some people to solve their
problems they have and to enhance their social functioning, whereas sociologist spend most of
his time in study and inferring out facts , the social worker try to understand the client or the
community , to make appropriate diagnosis and to precede with treatment, helping to solve the
problems and change the situations to bring about a better adjustment. Sociologists’ primary
goal is to develop and test theories about social phenomena, while a social workers primary goal
is to solve human problems. Of course, social work is usually characterized as the application of
sociological theories. Social workers while needing to know sociology, actually brings about the
change. Usually sociology students are taught to observe and do research on social problems but
not to become involved. It is the essence of social work to become involved and bring about
change.
2. Psychology and Social Work
Psychology is a science of mind: it seeks to study, explain and changer behavior of people. The
psychologist is particularly interested in understanding the individual and his/her behavior.
Psychologists often work with social workers in assisting clients. Psychology and social work
operate on some common ground; both are interested in the behavior of people, in their
interaction pattern in particular although the psychologist focuses mainly on individual behavior
and the social worker on social functioning. They both think the thinking and feeling processes
of people.
The psychologist is particularly interested in the individual attributes of people, and aims to
understand their characteristics and behavior. The social worker is particularly interested in the
social functioning and relationships of clients and in utilizing community resources to meet
clients’ personal and social problems.
3. Psychiatry and Social Work
Psychiatry is a field of medical practices that specializes in mental and emotional dysfunction or
disorders and provides medications in cases when symptoms indicate the need for them. One
psychiatric state that the major difference between psychiatry and social worker is that, the
psychiatrist deals with the treatment of illness and the medical model, whereas the social worker
focuses on problems and strengths in human relationships.

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Psychiatry and social work have many things in common. Both professions involve work with
people who possess personal and social problems. Both help people to improve their relationship
with others, and both have considerable interest in, and sensitivity and ability to understand and
direct feelings, and emotions.
Several differences stand out between social work and psychiatry. The psychiatrist particularly
concerned with individuals personality re-organization, and deals with patients using medical
model and may prescribe medications and hospitalization and tends to focus on unconscious,
intra psyche factors but social work with the person and the system of interaction. psychiatrist is
concerned with particularly interested in the internal dynamics of individual and group behavior ,
the social worker is especially concerned about social functioning involving social and
community factors and interactions.
Even though both focuses on , for instance, mental illness the focus is different; social work
analyzes how the social environment is contributing to the mental illness and how it could be
altered to support healthy behavior, psychiatrist focus on neurotransmitters dysfunction ( purely
on the mind and the nervous system)
1.7. Distinguishing Features of Social Work
Activity:
Discuss the major features of social work
1. Social work focus on the totality of the problem situation.

2. Social workers see the individual or group experiencing the problem as part of the larger
social system.

3. social work emphasis on social interaction and resultant social functioning and
malfunctioning.

4. Social workers recognize that many individual problems are social.

5. The relationship is the key in social work process.

6. Social work has an orientation in psychiatrist concepts and places considerable stress upon
understanding people.

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7. The basic goal of social work is client empowerment i.e. to help client to help him or herself
or to help a community to help itself.

8. Utilization of community resources in helping people to solve problems is very important

Chapter Two: Historical Development of Social Work

2.1. Helping Professions: A Response to Human Need
Activity:
What are the major forces contribute for the development of social work?
Social work is a profession that has historically maintained a partisan commitment to working
with the poor and the marginally dependent. Social work is firstly emerged in the twentieth
century as an important profession in USA society. Its roots lie in early social welfare activities,
the charity organization movement and similar activities in the traditional small-scale societies.
Social work is a helping profession which emerged out of historical periods and circumstances
calling for practical interventions to improve human life conditions; initially started as a
voluntary activity. Then occupation and at last profession being shaped and re-shaped by
different historical social, economic and political situations in the process developing its unique
perspectives and principles with a general goal of achieving human dignity and social justice.
Pre-modern History of Social Work
From Volunteers to an Occupation (prior to 1915)
Volunteerism: The Origin of Social Work
Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant
problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be
understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice
of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions.
Social work as a profession grew chiefly out of the development of social welfare policies and
programs in the United States, Europe, and Muslim countries. Judeo-Christian and Muslim
practices and beliefs underlie many of the early attempts to provide help to the poor, the sick,
widows, orphans, the “insane” and “imbeciles” (as those with problems of mental illness and
developmental disability used to be called) and the elderly.
Simply stated, the profession of social work owes its existence to volunteerism. Volunteers
founded relief societies, children’s homes, day care programs, recreation services, family and

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child welfare associations, and mental health associations. In other words, volunteers preceded
social work in almost every field of practice. Many introductory texts on social work and social
welfare recognize the profession’s origin in volunteerism. For example, Morales and Sheafor
(2004) describe the beginning of social work as being “found in the extensive volunteer
movement during the formative years of the United States”. In the colonial period, for example,
it was assumed that individuals and families could care for themselves, but if further difficulties
existed, one could depend on mutual aid. Friends, neighbors or other representatives of the
community could be counted on to help out when needed. Volunteer activities involved
interaction with the poor, the ill, and those experiencing other social problems. As social
agencies began to develop, they soon learned how to train volunteers in constructive ways to
relate to clients and improved their ability to be helpful. Developing out of this background came
social work as an occupation.
Modern History of Social Work
Professional Emergence (1915-1950)
With social work firmly established as an occupation, attention then turned to its development as
a profession. The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern (19th century)
and scientific origin.
Social work is a phenomenon of the late 18 th century and the early 19th century. The movement
began primarily in the United States and England. After the end of feudalism, the poor were seen
as a more direct threat to the social order, and so the state formed an organized system to care for
them. In England, the Poor Law served this purpose. This system of laws sorted the poor into
different categories, such as the able-bodied poor, the impotent poor, and the idle poor. This
system developed different responses to these different groups.
Social work involves ameliorating social problems such as poverty and homelessness. The 19th
century ushered in the Industrial Revolution. There was a great leap in technological and
scientific achievement, but there was also a great migration to urban areas throughout the
Western world. This led to many social problems, which in turn led to an increase in social
activism.
Jane Addams (1860–1935) a founder of the U.S. Settlement House movement and is considered
one of the early influences on professional social work in the United States. In America, the
various approaches to social work led to a fundamental question is social work a profession?

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This debate can be traced back to the early 20th century debate between Mary Richmond's
Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane Adams’s Settlement House Movement. The
essence of this debate was whether the problem should be approached from COS' traditional,
scientific method focused on efficiency and prevention or the Settlement House Movement's
immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client.
Even as many schools of social work opened and formalized processes for social work began to
be developed, the question lingered. In 1915, at the National Conference of Charities and
Corrections, Dr. Abraham Flexner spoke on the topic "Is Social Work a Profession?" He
contended that it was not because it lacked specialized knowledge and specific application of
theoretical and intellectual knowledge to solve human and social problems. Following Flexner’s
admonition to “go forth and build itself a profession” social workers busily worked on it. In
1957, Ernest Greenwood using the five critical attributes of the profession: a systematic body of
theory, professional authority, sanction of the community, a regulative code of ethics and a
professional culture concluded that social work was a profession. This led to the
professionalization of social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method, by
developing a code of ethics, knowledge, skill and value base of the profession.
2.3. Brief History of Social Work Profession in Ethiopia
Emergence of Social Work Education in Ethiopia
The first School of Social Work in Ethiopia was established in 1959. The school was a unit of
Haile Selassie I University, now called Addis Ababa University. Under the auspices of the
Ministry of Public Health and the United Nations Technical Assistance Board, the school offered
a two-year diploma course at that time. Shortly thereafter, it was incorporated into the Faculty of
Arts. In 1961, the school became an independent unit of the University, and in the same year it
was accepted as a member of the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW).
In September 1966, the School started to offer a four-year program leading to a Bachelor of
Social Work (BSW) degree. The total enrolment of degree students was one hundred by 1971-
1972, and it was estimated that the school would produce between fifteen to twenty graduates per
year. During that time, there were about ten Ethiopians who had been trained in the master’s
level in overseas universities and about fifty persons who had already completed the basic two-
year diploma course. Recognized in Ethiopia and throughout Africa as a centre of excellence in
the school led the way towards upgrading social work practice in Ethiopia.

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The Closure of the School of Social Work
The School of Social Work was closed when the Derg military regime came to power in 1974.
The military regime wanted the country to adopt the socialist system, and banned the social work
profession as incompatible with this system. The predominant socialist thinking was that social
problems did not exist in a socialist state; it was the purpose of government to meet all human
needs. All reference to social work was discouraged on the grounds that “it was reformist and
represented a bourgeois machination to keep the working classes in a perpetual state of
dependence”. In addition, the school and its curriculum were designed in the western style. The
School of Social Work was incorporated into the Department of Applied Sociology in the
College of Social Sciences of Addis Ababa University and lost its social work essence.
Reestablishment of Social Work Education
The reestablishment of social work education was assisted by a linkage with the Jane Addams
College of Social Work in at University of Illinois at Chicago, led by Dr. Alice Johnson
Butterfield and a group of professors from around the world who volunteered to teach in the
program. Butterfield's journey began when she was invited to Ethiopia in 2001. Through a series
of consultations with Ethiopian professionals, Butterfield and other local counterparts saw that
social work could play an important role in reducing poverty in Ethiopia. She and her colleagues
sought funding to create a social work graduate program at Addis Ababa University. The project
was entitled the Social Work Education in Ethiopia Partnership (SWEEP) and initially involved
the Jane Addams College of Social Work at the University of Illinois at Chicago, Addis Ababa
University, and several other international partners.
In 2003, Dr. Abye Tasse was appointed Dean of the School of Social Work at Addis Ababa
University, and the school was reopened in 2004. In five years time, the school created BSW,
MSW and PhD degree programs in Social Work and Social Development. Recently, other public
and private institutions began offering social work education programs at the MSW as well as
BSW and BA levels in regular, extension, summer and distance programs.
The elimination of social work education for 30 years led to a scarcity of social work
professionals in the country. While there were a few professionals who received training outside
the country during that time, social work can be seen as a new profession in Ethiopia. Part of the
purpose of this assessment is to determine what role this profession can play in mitigating the
negative impact of the HIV epidemic in Ethiopia.

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Chapter Three: Levels and Methods of Social Work Practice
3.1. Levels of Social Work Practice
Activity:
What are the major levels of Social Work Intervention?
The generalist approach moves beyond the confines of individually focused practice to the
expansive sphere of intervention at multiple system levels. According to Brown (1982), the
multilevel nature of generalist social work practice consists of:
Assisting individuals, families, small groups, and larger social systems to work on change
which promotes the best possible relationship between people and their environment.
Generalist practice is addressed to the solution and/or prevention of problems at all levels of
intervention: intrapersonal, family, interpersonal, organizational, community, institutional
and societal.
The view of generalist social work is like the view through a wide-angle lens of a camera. It
takes in the whole even when focusing on an individual part. Workers assess people in the back
drop of their settings and interventions unfold with an eye to outcomes at all system levels.
Visualize potential clients and agents for change on a continuum ranging from micro-to mid- to
macro level interventions, small systems to large systems, including the system of the social
work profession itself. Generalist social workers view problems in context, combine practice
techniques to fit the situation, and implement skills to intervene at multiple system levels.
System Levels for Social Work Intervention
[
Works with
Micro level intervention Individuals and family

Mid level intervention Works with Organizations & formal groups

Macro level intervention Works with Communities and societies

Intervention with the profession The system of the social work

Works with
Profession

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 1. Micro Level Intervention
Micro level intervention involves on work with people individually, in families or in small
groups to foster changes within personal functioning, in social relationships and in the ways
people interact with social and institutional resources. Individuals often seek social work services
because they experience in personal adjustment, interpersonal relationships, or environmental
stresses. Changes at this level focus on creating changes in an individual or family social
functioning.
2. Mid-Level Intervention
The mid-level social work intervention represents interactions with formal groups and complex
organizations. Practice with formal groups includes work with teams, work groups, task groups,
self-help groups and task-oriented community service clubs. Examples of complex organizations
include social service agencies, health care organizations, educational systems and correctional
facilities.
3. Macro Level Intervention
Macro level intervention includes working with neighbourhoods, communities, and societies to
achieve social change in order to promote social justice. At this level of intervention, the client
system is the community or society. Examples of macro level clients include neighbourhoods,
cities, rural areas, communities, and local and national governments. The primary target of
change is the community or society itself; however, because of the transactional nature of
change, changes at the macro level also affect changes at all other system levels.
4. The Social Work Profession
Finally, generalist practitioners address issues within the system of social work profession itself.
These activities define professional relationships with social work and interdisciplinary
colleagues, reorient priorities within the social work profession, or reorganize the system of
service delivery. Standard setting and accountability call for social workers to be actively
involved in the system of social work profession.

17
Levels of Practice area Objective/goal Strategy/skill
interventio
n
Micro Work with individuals, To facilitate changes Clinical practice like crisis
families or small within personal intervention, family
groups functioning, social therapy, linkage and
relationships and the referral, group process.
ways people interact
with social and
institutional resources
Mid Work with formal Creating changes in Understanding of group
groups and complex formal groups and process and skills in
organizations organizations including facilitating decision making
their structure, function and proficiency in
and role organizational planning
Macro Work with Facilitate and achieve Neighborhood organizing
neighborhood, social change Community planning,
communities and public education, social
societies action, social policy
formulation and community
development
Social Define professional Address issues within Standard setting and
Work relationship with social the system of social accountability call
Profession work and work profession
interdisciplinary
colleagues, reorient
priorities within the
profession and
reorganize the system
of service delivery

18
3.2. Methods of Social Work Practice
Social work involves ameliorating social problems that may prevent/limit people’s social
functioning. When problems become stressful and self-help efforts fail to produce desired
solutions, professional assistance may be needed. Social workers are agents of change who
attempt to improve the conditions that adversely affect the functioning of clients or client
systems. Change efforts may be geared toward assisting individuals, families, groups,
organizations or communities or all, and entail appropriate methods of intervention to achieve
solutions to problems. Practice methods incorporate social work values, principles and
techniques in helping people obtain resources, conducting counselling and psycho therapy with
individuals or groups, helping communities or organizations provide or improve social and
health services and participating in relevant legislative processes that affect the quality of life for
all citizens.
The development of different methods is partly an effort to constitute the unique characteristics
of the profession. During much of its history as a profession, social work has been characterized
in search of a practice approach and it has been using different methods to respond to various
human conditions. This search included the development of several distinct practice methods
such as case work, group work, community organization, research and administration as well as
the more recently popular generalist approach and a number of other specialized practice
approaches. In arriving on its recent development, it had been sufficiently flexible in
encompassing various richen techniques that in turn reflects the profession’s complexity. In
broad terms, the following are the practice approaches that have developed through time:
1. Traditional practice approach
2. Multi-method practice approach
3. Generalist practice approach
4. Specialist practice approach
1. Traditional Practice Approach
A. Case Work (Social Work Practice with Individuals)
The first method which appeared owing to the effort of Marry Richmond (1917) is case work. It
is the oldest social work practice. It is exhaustively discussed in her book entitled as “Social

19
Diagnosis”, and it is better in dealing with different problems which are related with individuals
and families. At that time, the profession was exclusively focusing on the aforementioned client
systems. When social worker’s effort is aimed at working directly with individuals or families,
the process is called case work (direct practice). This method is geared toward helping
individuals and families identify solutions to personal or other problems related to difficulty with
social functioning. The method emphasizes on the social interaction that contribute to adequate
or inadequate social functioning.
B. Group Work (Social Work Practice with Groups)
The second type of traditional practice method is group work, which aims to intervene with
group based problems in a more advanced and effective style. It is a method that fosters personal
development through the mechanism of group process. It uses small group interaction as a
vehicle for social change. Group work stresses the value of self-development through structured
interactions with other group members. This process encourages personal growth through active
participation as a group member. It emphasizes the value of participation, democratic goal
setting, freedom of expression, acceptance, and the development of positive attitudes through
sharing. It has gained recognition in 1940s. In its’ earlier stage, it focused on education,
recreation and character building activities in solving group problems (mezzo level). Practically
it helps to develop social competencies, especially those experiencing; powerlessness, alienation,
and hopelessness. And Grace Coyle (1892-1962) is an early leader of social group work which
prefers a creative group experiences in solving group problems. Thus, it is important in solving
problems of households, families, neighborhoods, clubs and other social groups.
C. Community Work /Organization
The nature and characteristics of different social problems demands the development of various
relevant social programs and the involvement of more than one social agency. This in turn, paves
a way for the emergence of a third distinct practice method-community organization- that
focuses on the situational context of behavioral change. This method tries to create change in a
larger groups and organizational units. The institutional/organizational changes in turn affect
personal well being. E.g. Early community organization efforts addressed community problems
stemming from World War II, such as, the need for a network services for military families and
day care services for children whose mothers were member of the work force. On the other hand,
Eduard Lindeman (1885-1953) which was the famous leader of community organization has

20
developed an integrated, holistic, interdisciplinary perspective on human behavior and social
problems. As per to some practitioners, community organization involves the following activities
like: community organization; organizational development; and social reform.
D. Administration and Research
By the late 1940s, one additional method started to emerge that is, administration and research.
Despite of its consideration as a secondary method of practice, its primary goal is improving the
effectiveness of programs and agency resources by carrying out researches and necessarily by
administering social agencies. In fact, this method plays a supplementary role for the proper
accomplishment of various tasks in relation to case work, group work or community
organization.
2. Multi-Method Practice Approach
This approach is developed partially due to the development of the four distinct traditional
practice methods and also the existence of more dynamic and complex nature of social problems
which laid a grass-pasture for the application of a unified practice method. Apart from meeting
the diversified demands of the professional practice, it failed to provide a strongly unified
practice theme that the profession needs. The importance of this approach was affirmed
following the study conducted on social work and social work education. And the study suggests
the utilization of a unified method that helps to intervene with more than one level of client
system.
3. The Integrated Generalist Model
A professional desire to unify the three social work methods case work, group work and
community organization precipitated the search for a common base of practice. In the decades of
the 1978s and 1980s, the generalist approach to practice gained recognition and acceptance. As
Balinsky stated, the complexity of human problems necessitates a broadly oriented practitioner
with a versatile repertoire of methods and skills capable of interacting in any one of a number of
systems. The generalist model provided that versatility and met the requirement for a flexible
approach to social work practice demanded by the increasing complexity and interrelatedness of
human problems. The contemporary generalist approach integrates the traditional intervention
methodologies into a unified framework: one that was not bounded by methods but rather was
shaped by situational or environmental parameters. It expands the concept of clients to include

21
all social systems in the system in the environmental areas. Clients are communities,
neighborhoods, corporations, groups or individuals.
4. Specialist Practice Approach
In contrast to the generalist, a number of specialized practice approaches have emerged. Those
practice approaches are characterized by the application of selected knowledge and skills to a
narrowed area of practice based on setting, population served, social problems addressed, and/or
practice intervention mode used. In other words, this practice approach begins with a preference
about the knowledge and skills required for practice in that specialized area and fit the client in
to those more narrow, but in-depth, worker competencies.
3.3. Social Work Process: the Problem Solving Approach
Activity
Discuss the major steps in social work practice
In the context of social work practice, “process” refers to the succession of encounters and
activities that take place during the course of a professional intervention with a client. And each
of these encounters and activities are made up of steps and elements that both develop and
contribute to a collaborative client-worker relationship. The problem-solving process is a two-
way medium; both the client and the social worker must work together to find solutions to any
given problem.
Developing an understanding and awareness of the social work process is therefore one of the
prerequisites for social workers to become reflective practitioners. Reflection within the context
of problem solving refers to the worker’s ability to work in a thoughtful and systematic way.
When applying reflection, social workers need to be aware of and inform their clients about the
reasons for their mutual involvement in particular activities—e.g., why are we doing this? What
purpose does this step have? How will it help us solve this problem?—only then can they clarify
and justify their methods and actions.
Interventions should be purposeful and suited to the overall plan or strategy applied throughout
the process, i.e., if actions do not reflect the ongoing progress of the client-social worker
relationship, they will be much harder to complete and abide. The social work process generally
requires an awareness of all phases of any given intervention, so that the social worker and the
client can prepare, carry out, and evaluate their agreed upon interventions. There should not be
any surprises.

22
In addition to being aware of the social work process, social workers must be aware of
themselves. The ability to self-reflect is required of all social workers. In order to be able to help
a client reflect on his/her own actions, thoughts and beliefs-which they will have to do time and
time again-social workers must be able to do the same.
Understanding a Problem
In social work, a problem is defined as “an event, condition or experience that stimulates a sense
of disequilibrium and a corresponding motivation to regain a sense of equilibrium through
thought or action or both thought and action”. Note that this definition does not imply any value
judgment. From an ethical point of view, problems are considered as neither good nor bad. In
social work, problems are not to be interpreted as representing something negative about an
individual, group, family, organization, or community; that is, problems are not necessarily the
result of crimes or sins. Rather, problems should be seen as inevitable outcomes that can happen
to anyone; everyone encounters, grapples with, and resolves problems every day.
Phases of the Problem-solving Approach
Social workers, traditionally, use a series of steps or processes to help clients resolve their
problems: engagement, assessment, planning, intervention and evaluation. Each phase is action-
oriented and successful completion of each phase leads into the next one.

Engagement

Engagement is the first phase in the client-worker partnership. The primary tasks of the
engagement phase include: personal and professional preparations to meet the client;
introductions and orientation to the process; consideration and review of policy issues, legal
factors, and ethical principles; and activities that lead the social worker to better understand the
nature of the presenting problem and to identify a preliminary goal based on the potential client’s
need. Effective engagement ideally leads to the development of rapport between the client and
social worker so that they can work together on an assessment of the client’s situation.
Assessment
Assessment is the second phase of the problem-solving approach. Assessment in the social work
context involves the dynamics, dimensions, and activities directly related to data collection,
analysis, and goal setting,. Assessment involves specific activities that lead to a more complete
mutual understanding of the origin, nature, extent, and severity of the problem. It also involves

23
approaching the problem-solving process within the context of the client’s experience and
circumstances. Effective assessment leads to a contract-based agreement between the client and
the worker to develop a clear and specific service plan to move towards goal achievement.
During the assessment phase, both the client and the social worker gather information about the
following issues:
How the problem started and developed to the stage it is currently;
The perception and attitudes of the client towards the problem;
The client’s past experience in attempting to solve the same problem and the corresponding
results;
The client’s expectations from the working partnership with the social worker;
The client’s personal system, the family, and the social environment that needs to be
considered in developing alternative solutions;
Sources of relevant information to understand the problem and the client’s overall situation in
relation to environmental factors; and
Strengths, personal assets, coping strategies, and other client resources that could help to meet
the goals.
Planning
This is another crucial step in social work practice. It is the stage in which problems are restated

and analyzed and what can be done about it is planned. Further in this phase the question “Who

are the key actors and what part do they play”? is answered. Planning for intervention is based on

a thorough assessment that has been made before about the overall problem situation and the

social system. Under this phase the social worker works the client, prioritize problems, translate

problems into needs, establish goals and specify action steps. In this stage the social worker

develops a plan of action in collaboration with the client.

No Needs Goals Planned Resources Actors Time Frame

Interventions

24
 2

Intervention
Intervention is the fourth phase of the problem-solving approach. The service plan, which is
collaboratively developed by the client and the social worker during the planning phase, will be
extended into an action plan for implementation in the intervention phase. The intervention phase
requires knowledge of different intervention and prevention programs, including their
effectiveness, policies, practices, services, models, methods, and protocols. Interventions
typically follow the development of a service agreement between the client and the social
worker. The five fundamental roles of social broker, facilitator, teacher, mediator, and advocate
characterize the intervention phase.
Evaluation
Evaluation is the fourth phase of the problem-solving approach. In the social work context,
evaluation involves those activities related to review, evaluation, and ending. At the centre of the
evaluation phase is the process of considering the nature, process, and outcomes of the problem-
solving actions designed by both the client and social worker. More importantly, the evaluation
phase is a stage where the client and the worker disengage from the planned process by
concluding their action plans together and, sometimes, saying goodbye to each other. In
principle, an effective evaluation phase results in a mutual understanding of the progress
observed during the process of goal attainment and a reviewing of the steps that both the client
and the worker took.
3.4. Generalist Social Work Functions and Roles
The activities of generalist social work practice fall broadly in to three related functions: the
function of consultancy-consulting with client systems regarding the resolution of problems,
resource management-managing the resources of client systems and the social environment, and
education-offering information to clients and systems in their impinging environment.
To fulfil these functions, social workers assume various practice roles and employ numerous
practice strategies. Roles and correlated strategies are associated with each social function.
Social workers roles are expected patterns of professional behaviour. Roles assign certain
behaviours and prescribe appropriate responses to particular situations. Three interrelated
components make up each role: a role concept-how people believe they should act in a particular

25
situation; role expectations- how others believe they should act when they occupy a particular
status; and role performance- how people really do act. In other words, roles have psychological
three components: psychological including perceptions and feelings; social including behaviours
and the expectations of others; and behavioural components. Social work roles provide direction
for professional activities. Roles define the nature of the transactions between practitioners and
clients. Roles also define the nature of transactions among professional colleagues. Social work
roles and their associated strategies suggest general ways to achieve goals.
3.4.1. Consultancy Function
Consultancy refers to the professional activities through which social workers and clients initiate
change by clarifying clients’ issues, discovering options, and developing plans of action.
Consultancy relies on the expertise of clients and social workers alike. Social workers bring
formally acquired knowledge, values, and skills; clients bring knowledge, values, and skills
based on their personal, organizational, and community life experiences. In other words,
consultancy acknowledges that both social workers and client systems bring information and
resources, actual and potential, which are vital for resolving the issue at hand.
3.4.2. The Function of Resource Management
In the resource management function, social workers stimulate exchanges with resources that
client systems already use to some extent, access available resources that client systems are not
using and develop resources that are not currently available. Social workers often help clients to
access resources, coordinate the delivery of services and initiate new policies and programs.
Resources are available assets or assets held in reserve that support social functioning, meet
needs or resolve problems. Resources are sources of power and provide the impetus for change at
any system level. Resources are located in people, in interaction with others and within social
institutions. These resource systems enhance clients’ social functioning and promote their full
participation in society.
3.4.3. The Function of Education
The social work function of education represents an empowering information exchange between
a client system and a social work practitioner. Mutual sharing of knowledge and ideas are central
to the educational function. In fact, educational processes at all system levels reflect partnerships
of co-learners and co-teachers. Freire (1990) supports dialogue as the most effective educational
tool. Collaborative learning presumes that client systems are self-directing, possess reservoirs of

26
experiences and resources on which to base educational experiences and desire immediate
applications of new learning. The education function of social work respects the knowledge and
experience that all parties contribute.
Educational roles encompass social work activities at all system levels. The teaching role
expands micro level clients’ base of information through learning strategies. At the mid level, the
trainer role facilitates staff development. At the macro level, the outreach role uses community
education strategies to provide information to the general public. Finally, with respect to the
professional system, social workers as researchers and scholars share their research findings and
practice wisdom with other professionals.
3.5. Integrating Generalist Functions
In practice, social workers interweave the functions of consultancy, resource management and
education. For example, in addition to counselling, consultancy may involve linking clients with
resources and teaching them new skills. Similarly, even though education is identified as a
separate function, educational processes are inherent in all other social work activities as well.
Rather than compartmentalizing these roles, this trilogy of social work functions provides an
organizing schema for generalist social workers to construct and integrate multifaceted
interventions.

27
Table 2: Summary of the functions, roles and strategies of generalist Social work
Function Level of Roles Strategies
intervention
Consultancy Micro level enabler Empower clients in finding
solutions
Mid level facilitator Foster organizational
development
Macro level planner Coordinate program and policy
dev’t through research and
planning
Social work Colleague/monitor Monitor, guide and support
system professional acculturation
Resource Micro level Broker/advocate Link clients with resources
Management through case management
Mid level Convener/mediator Assemble groups and
organizations to network for
resource development
Macro level Activist Initiate and sustain social change
through social action
Social work Catalyst Stimulate community service
system through interdisciplinary
activities
Education Micro level Teacher Facilitate information processing
and provide educational
programming
Mid level Trainer Instruct through staff
development
Macro level Outreach Convey public information
about social issues and social
services through community
education
Social work Researcher/scholar Engage in discovery for
system knowledge development

28
Chapter Four: Ethics and Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work Practice
4.1. Ethics
Ethics (moral duty) is the product of values. The concept of professional ethics, therefore, relates
to the moral principles of practice. While values are the implicit or explicit beliefs about what
people consider good, ethics relates to what people consider correct or right. Social work values
form the basis for social workers’ beliefs about individuals and society, while ethics defines the
framework for what should be done in specific situations. Ethics generates standards that direct
one’s conduct. With respect to professional ethics and values, ethics represents “values in
action”. Specifically, Levy says, “social work ethics represents behavioural expectations or
preferences that are associated with social work responsibility”. Ethics embodies Preferences not
to the extent that they have proven worthy of realization but because they have been deemed
worthy of realization. These preferences continue to be compiled, modified and crystallized in
response to accumulating knowledge and technology and in response to social change. Despite
their evolving nature, however, they rest on a fairly constant and fundamental value base with
which social workers have been identified since the advent of their professionalization.
Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers
Preamble
The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human wellbeing and help meet
the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of
people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty. A historic and defining feature of
social work is the profession’s focus on individual wellbeing in a social context and the well-
being of society. Fundamental to social work is attention to the environmental forces that create,
contribute to, and address problems in living.
Social workers promote social justice and social change with and on behalf of clients. “Clients”
is used inclusively to refer to individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.
Social workers are sensitive to cultural and ethnic diversity and strive to end discrimination,
oppression, poverty, and other forms of social injustice. These activities may be in the form of
direct practice, community organizing, supervision, consultation administration, advocacy, social
and political action, policy development and implementation, education, and research and
evaluation. Social workers seek to enhance the capacity of people to address their own needs.

29
Social workers also seek to promote the responsiveness of organizations, communities, and other
social institutions to individuals’ needs and social problems.
The mission of the social work profession is rooted in a set of core values. These core values,
embraced by social workers throughout the profession’s history, are the foundation of social
work’s unique purpose and perspective:
 service
 social justice
 dignity and worth of the person
 importance of human relationships
 integrity
 competence
Ethical Principles
The following broad ethical principles are based on social work’s core values of service, social
justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and
competence. These principles set forth ideals to which all social workers should aspire.
Value: Service
Ethical Principle: Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to address social
problems.
Social workers elevate service to others above self-interest. Social workers draw on their
knowledge, values, and skills to help people in need and to address social problems. Social
workers are encouraged to volunteer some portion of their professional skills with no expectation
of significant financial return (pro bono service).
Value: Social Justice
Ethical Principle: Social workers challenge social injustice.
Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable and oppressed
individuals and groups of people. Social workers’ social change efforts are focused primarily on
issues of poverty, unemployment, discrimination, and other forms of social injustice. These
activities seek to promote sensitivity to and knowledge about oppression and cultural and ethnic
diversity. Social workers strive to ensure access to needed information, services, and resources;
equality of opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision making for all people.

30
Value: Dignity and Worth of the Person
Ethical Principle: Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person.
Social workers treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of individual
differences and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers promote clients’ socially responsible
self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance clients’ capacity and opportunity to change
and to address their own needs. Social workers are cognizant of their dual responsibility to
clients and to the broader society. They seek to resolve conflicts between clients’ interests and
the broader society’s interests in a socially responsible manner consistent with the values, ethical
principles, and ethical standards of the profession.
Value: Importance of Human Relationships
Ethical Principle: Social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships.
Social workers understand that relationships between and among people are an important vehicle
for change. Social workers engage people as partners in the helping process. Social workers seek
to strengthen relationships among people in a purposeful effort to promote, restore, maintain, and
enhance the wellbeing of individuals, families, social groups, organizations, and communities.
Value: Integrity
Ethical Principle: Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner.
Social workers are continually aware of the profession’s mission, values, ethical principles, and
ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent with them. Social workers act honestly and
responsibly and promote ethical practices on the part of the organizations with which they are
affiliated.
Value: Competence
Ethical Principle: Social workers practice within their areas of competence and develop and
enhance their professional expertise.
Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and skills and to apply
them in practice. Social workers should aspire to contribute to the knowledge base of the
profession.

31
Ethical Standards
Activity
Reading Assignment: Read and discuss in detail about what is the responsibilities of the
social worker at various settings?
The following ethical standards are relevant to the professional activities of all social workers.
These standards concern (1) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to clients, (2) social workers’
ethical responsibilities to colleagues, (3) social workers’ ethical responsibilities in practice
settings, (4) social workers’ ethical responsibilities as professionals, (5) social workers’ ethical
responsibilities to the social work profession, and (6) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to
the broader society.
Some of the standards that follow are enforceable guidelines for professional conduct, and some
are inspirational. The extent to which each standard is enforceable is a matter of professional
judgment to be exercised by those responsible for reviewing alleged violations of ethical
standards.
1. Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to Clients
1.01 Commitment to Clients
1.02 Self-Determination
1.03 Informed Consent
1.04 Competence
1.05 Cultural Competence and Social Diversity
1.06 Conflicts of Interest
1.07 Privacy and Confidentiality
1.08 Access to Records
1.09 Sexual Relationships
1.10 Physical Contact
1.11 Sexual Harassment
1.12 Derogatory Language
1.13 Payment for Services
1.14 Clients Who Lack Decision-Making Capacity
1.15 Interruption of Services
1.16 Termination of Services

32
2. Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues
2.01 Respect
2.02 Confidentiality
2.03 Interdisciplinary Collaboration
2.04 Disputes Involving Colleagues
2.05 Consultation
2.06 Referral for Services
2.07 Sexual Relationships
2.08 Sexual Harassment
2.09 Impairment of Colleagues
2.10 Incompetence of Colleagues
2.11 Unethical Conduct of Colleagues
3. Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings
3.01 Supervision and Consultation
3.02 Education and Training
3.03 Performance Evaluation
3.04 Client Records
3.05 Billing
3.06 Client Transfer
3.07 Administration
3.08 Continuing Education and Staff Development
3.09 Commitments to Employers
3.10 Labour Management Disputes
4. Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals
4.01 Competence
4.02 Discrimination
4.03 Private Conduct
4.04 Dishonesty, Fraud, and Deception
4.05 Impairment
4.06 Misrepresentation
4.07 Solicitations

33
4.08 Acknowledging Credit
5. Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to the Social Work Profession
5.01 Integrity of the Profession
5.02 Evaluation and Research
6. Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to the Broader Society
6.01 Social Welfare
6.02 Public Participation
6.03 Public Emergencies
6.04 Social and Political Action

34
Chapter Five: Theories in Social Work
5.1. Definition of Theory
Theory refers to the structured set of assumptions, observations and statements that direct our
understanding of the world. Theory is a group of related hypotheses, concepts, and constructs,
based on facts and observations, which attempts to explain a particular phenomenon. Theories
are methods of organizing and structuring concepts to provide a complete understanding or an
insightful view of a phenomenon. A theory is a set of ideas that helps to explain why something
happens or happened in a particular way, and to predict likely outcomes in the future. Theories
are based on evidence and reasoning, but have not yet been conclusively proved.
What do we mean by theory in social work?
Social work theory is a set of ideas or principles used to guide practice which are sufficiently
coherent that they could if necessary be made explicit in a form which was open to challenge.
The following are objectives of teaching theories in social work.
1. Refinement of practice
2. Provision of changing theoretical inputs to the social work knowledge base
3. Building up of new theories from the practice data
Payne (1991: 52) helps us by distinguishing four types of theory
1. Theories about social work explain the nature, task and purpose/role of social work in society
2. Theories of social work describe which activities constitute social work, set aims for social
work activities and explain why those activities are relevant and effective in meeting the aims
3. Theories contributing to social work are the psychological, sociological and other theories
which explain or describe personal and social behaviour and are used to make theories of social
work systematic, related to general social science explanations and to give supporting evidence
for the social work theory’s prescriptions
4. Theories of social work practice and method prescribe in detail how the other theories so far
outlined may be applied in the interaction between workers and clients

35
Framework for Social Work Practice
Social work draws from many frameworks for practice, but some of these frameworks have had
more influence on the profession of social work than others. The three influential frameworks are
the following.
The Ecosystem Perspective
This perspective focuses on the interplay between the person and his or her environment. To
understand the functioning of the individual, we must understand his or her environmental
context: individuals exist within families; families exist within communities and neighborhoods,
individuals, families, and neighborhoods exist in a political, economic, and cultural environment;
the environment impacts the actions, beliefs, and choices of the individual.
The Strengths Perspective
This perspective is built on the assumption that every individual, family, group and community
has strengths and focusing on these strengths leads to growth and overcoming difficulties. Under
this perspective, clients are generally the best experts about what types of helping strategies will
be effective or ineffective.
The Cultural Competence Perspective
This perspective is the understanding and approval of cultural distinctions, taking into accounts
the beliefs, values, activities, and customs of distinctive population groups. Many cultures have
prescribed ways of talking about health and the human body and these factors impact a person's
reaction and acceptance of health services. These perspectives are consistent with a family-
centered or client-centered approach, which is central to the standards of best practice with
persons with disabilities and consistent with social work's central values and framework.
5. 2. The Importance of Theory in Social Work
Social workers strive to improve the lives of client systems. Social workers rely heavily on
research and theory derived from the social sciences for insights into how best to approach the
issues they face. In social work, theories help illuminate social structures, human behaviour,
crisis and conflict, and provides insights into how to alleviate social and personal hardships.
They offer a framework for interpreting, explaining and predicting human behaviour and help
social workers explain why people behave as they do, understand better how the environment
affects behaviour, shape interventions, and predict the likely result of a particular social work

36
intervention. It explains and predicts social problems; guides and informs social work practice
and social policy as well as directs social work research and gives credibility to the profession.
Theories are used to guide the practice of social work. Theories are basic tools in social work
practice. The use of social work theory in practice aids social workers in understanding
themselves, their clients, their agencies, and their society. They further guide practice by
providing social workers with conceptual frameworks that can be used to examine the presenting
problem or aspirations of an individual, family, group, organization or community. They are
valuable tools for use in assessment of clients and client groups and of their situations and their
environments. Theories also guide us in developing treatment or intervention plans to alleviate
problems and enhance client functioning. Because of their explanatory and predictive nature,
theories can inform us about social policies that are necessary to change the conditions of target
groups or vulnerable populations. Thus, theories are an important tool in guiding all levels of
professional social work practice.
1. Psychodynamic Perspectives
These perspectives assume that behaviour results from movements and interactions in people’s
minds. Psychodynamic theories assume behaviour comes from tensions and movement among
intra-psychic structures. The theory emphasizes the way in which the mind stimulates behaviour
and both are influenced by the social environment. Psychodynamic theory focuses on how inner
energies and external forces interact to impact emotional development, internalized experiences
shape personality development and functioning and healing occurs through attention to
transferences and the treatment relationship. Various techniques are used to interpret how
people’s minds work by observing their behaviour. One important reason for understanding these
theories is that they were quite influential during the formative years of social work. The
perspectives come from the work of Freud and his followers.
Philosophical Underpinnings
Psychodynamic perspective primarily focuses on intra-personal factors. That is, they believe that
human behaviour can be best understood through the study of psychological phenomena such as
intra-psychic structures, drives transformed in to psychological needs, psychical processes and so
on. There is an assumption that the problems people encounter create a state of “illness” that
requires professional help. In the context of this professional help, incremental changes based on
“insight” are considered to be desirable.

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Psychoanalytic theory includes human development, personality, and treatment. This theory can
be viewed as including theories of human development, personality and abnormal psychology,
and of treatment. The theory’s foundation rests on the ideas of psychic determinism and the
unconscious. These ideas include the assumption that spoken words can disclose hidden or
unknown confusions in one’s thoughts and the everyday meanings of spoken words do not
always represent the complexity of psychodynamic ideas.
The theory focuses on behaviours developed at various stages. Particular behaviours are
important at each stage and the behaviours from earlier stages continue to be important at later
stages. Some persons become attached to behaviour from particular stages. In each stage, the
focus of attention is on a different need. However, persons may fall back to behaviour from
earlier stages.
Understanding psychodynamic theories aids in understanding many important social work
concepts, such as aggression, repression, and resistance. The contribution of psychodynamic
theories includes providing a sense of the complexity of human lives and the interaction between
the body, mind, and environment. Psychodynamic theories also have provided ideas and
metaphors for practice. Overall, psychodynamic ideas are an important historical basis for many
areas of social work practice.
2. Cognitive Behavioral Theories
Cognitive-behavioral theory focuses on how individuals develop cognitive functioning and learn
through acting on their environment and assumes that knowledge is constructed through children
physically and mentally acting on objects, biological adaptation to environment and cognitive
structures enable adaptation and organization. As a reaction to psychodynamic models, the
Cognitive-behavioral is concerned with the conscious reasoning process and the behavior itself
as affected by the individual’s own cognitive approach. Cognitive-behavioral argues that
behavior is affected by perception or interpretation of the environment during the process of
learning.
Cognitive-behavioural theory is primarily individualist-reformist, since it addresses
psychological issues rather than general social objectives. In general, this type focuses on
problem behaviours such as social phobia by using well-defined techniques combined with
careful assessment and monitoring, typically done with behavioural measurements. One

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interesting note regarding these theories is that they are not widely used in Eastern countries and
areas where broader social aims are more relevant.
Basic ideas from cognitive-behavioral are applicable in social work. Basic ideas from learning
theory and behavioral treatment that are applicable in social work include: learned helplessness,
social learning and modelling, operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and cognitive factors
such as disorders of perception or attribution, as well as catastrophic thinking.
One major source of controversy situates cognitive and behavioural models at the centre of
debate about evidence-based practice. Behavioural and cognitive approaches claim a high level
of empirically tested results, and their proponents are forceful in their criticisms of
psychodynamic models of social work.
Cognitive-behavioural practice relies on reinforcers. This type of practice relies on choosing
reinforcers that have an observable effect on behavior and are integrated into a schedule of
reinforcement that produces large changes of behaviour in small steps. The schedule should
allow for continuous reinforcement, shaping, fading, intermittent reinforcement if needed, and
ratio or interval schedules as appropriate.
3. Eco-systems Perspectives
Systems and ecology theories are comprehensive, sociologically based, and present a distinctly
different style. These are the ones that use structuring and technical terminology, as opposed to
traditional social work practice that emphasizes individualization and psychology. Systems
perspectives, however, are important in that they present a social focus as opposed to a focus on
individual patients or clients. However, they are individual-reformist in nature, considering their
primary social focus is primarily working with individuals to fit the social order.
Many social workers draw up on the ecosystem perspective to understand the relationship
between people and their physical and social environment. As its name suggest, the ecosystem
perspective incorporate ideas from ecology and general system theory. Therefore, it is advisable
to capture, first, introductory points about ecology and general system theory separately before
discussing about ecosystem perspective.
The ecosystem theory is a combination of general systems theory and an ecological, interactive
perspective-a hybrid theory. Ecosystem theory refers to the inter relationships between human
systems and their physical and social environments. Environment in ecosystems terms is defined
as the neighbourhood in which one lives and the schools one attends and, the natural realm. The

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core ecosystems concepts can be summarized as follows: A social system is composed of
members organized into a unit where all of the systems are subsystems of other systems. Cause
and effect are intertwined and inseparable (interactionism) in which the parts of the whole are in
constant interaction. A social system is separated from other systems by boundaries and these
boundaries must be both open and closed to some degree. The system’s environment is outside
the boundaries. The person and the environment are in a constant interaction. In addition a social
system is adaptive or goal oriented and purposive, striving to maintain equilibrium in which
change in one member affects the whole system and therefore its equilibrium.
A) General System Theory
Systems theory was a reaction against psychodynamic theory in the 1970s. General system
theory offers principles that describe how human systems operate and interact with each other. It
reduces highly complex realities in manageable constructs and extends our knowledge about
diversity of human behaviour. General system theory define social systems as “an organized
whole made up of components that interact in a way distinct from their interaction with other
entitles and which endures over some period of time”. Social systems are structures of
interdependent people. Characteristics that distinguish one system from another include their
pattern of relationships, their purposes, and attributes that members have in common.
The major ideas of system theory and their application could be summarized as follows:-
Concepts about the structure of systems
o Systems are entities with boundaries with in which mental and physical energy are
exchanged internally more than they are across the boundary.
o Systems may be closed or open; closed systems have no interchange across the boundary , as
in closed vacuum flask while open systems occur where energy crosses the boundary which
is permeable, like a tea bag in a cup of hot water which lets water in and tea out but keeps the
tea leaves inside.
Concepts on processing in systems, the way systems work and how we may change them.
 Input: - energy being fed to the system across the boundary.
 Throughput: - how energy is used with the system.
 Output: - effect on the environment of energy passed out through the boundary of a system.
 Feedback loops: - information and energy passed to the system caused by its outputs
affecting the environment which tells it the results of its out puts.

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 Entropy: - systems have their own energy to keep going, which means that unless, they
receive inputs from outside the boundary they run down and die.
The state of a system is identified by five characteristics;
Its steady state, how it maintains itself, by receiving input and using it. This idea suggests
systems, such as human beings or social groups, can incorporate change without changing their
fundamental identity.
Its homeostasis or equilibrium; this is the ability to maintain our fundamental nature,
even though in put changes us. So- I may eat cabbage, but I do not become cabbage-like, I
remain me while the cabbage is digested and gives me energy and nourishment.
Differentiation; the idea that systems grow more complex, with more kinds of
components over time.
Non- summative; the idea that the whole is more than the sum of it parts. The objects or
elements within a system produce an entity that is greater than the additive sum of the separate
parts. System theory is anti-reductionisms; it asserts that no system can be adequately understood
or totally explained once it has been broken down in to its components parts.
Reciprocity (symbiosis); the idea that if one part of the system changes, that change
interacts with all the other parts. Therefore, change in one part of the system creates change in
other parts. As the result of reciprocity, systems exhibit both equifinality (reaching the same
result in several different ways) and multifinality (similar circumstances could led to different
results), because the parts of the system interact in different ways. These above ideas, help us to
understand the complexity of human relationships and why outcomes of similar actions vary.
Social systems may possess synergy (negatrophy, because it negates entropy) , which means they
can create their own energy to maintain themselves.
Additional concept from system theory is relationship which asserts that the patterning and
structuring among the elements in a system are as important as the elements themselves.
The importance of system theory in social work practice can be attached to:
- Its help to maintain consistency
- Recognize the importance of context
- Emphasize on process, how relationships and interactions occur as well as contexts and
outcomes.

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- Working with others, is also an important bonus of system theory, because it emphasize how
joint working with other agencies, families and networks permit influence on clients.
System perspectives are important to social work because they emphasize its social focus
as opposed to counseling, psychotherapy or many caring professions, whose emphasize is on
individual patients or clients. System theory focuses on individuals as part of and incorporating
other systems and so, it integrates social with psychological elements of practice. Anderson, etal
(1990) emphasize that system theory integrates the atomistic-whole continuum. That is it
requires us to think about social and personal elements in any social situations as well as and at
the same time as, seeing how these elements interact with each other to integrate in to whole.
System theories had a strong impact in social work during 1970s; they focus on
connection between resources of families and groups and their effective functioning, rather than
as with health work or counselling seeing the family as helping or hindering the function of
improving the health or wellbeing of individual patients. The theory is applied to social systems
such as groups, families and societies as well as biological systems. Hanson (1995) argued that
the value of system theory is that it deals with “wholes” rather than with parts of human or social
behaviour as other theories do.
B) Ecological Perspective
The term ecology is originated in the biological sciences. It refers to the inter relationships
between living organisms and their physical and social environments.
In ecological perspective the equation people: environment shows the perspectives concern for
the degree of fit between people’s rights, needs, capacities and goals on the one hand and the
quality and properties of social and physical environments on the other hand. When we assess
the theoretical foundation of this perspective, we found transactions and coping, among others.
Transactions are different from interactions; while interaction is a form of linear causality in
which one entity affects one or more in a particular episode without itself being changed in the
process, transactions must be understood as continuous reciprocal exchanges in the unitary
person: environment system, through which each shapes, changes or otherwise influence the
other over time. Human beings are viewed as developing and adopting through transactions with
all elements of their environments. It doesn’t view people as passive reactors to their
environments but rather as being involved in dynamic and reciprocal interactions with them.

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When transactions are adaptive people’s growth, development and physical and emotional well-
being are promoted or supported by significant others, while when transactions are maladaptive
people’s emotional, biological, cognitive and social development and functioning may impaired
and environments may be damaged. The term “adaptive ness” is therefore transactional in nature;
it expresses a particular person: environment relationship not merely the attributes alone.
Adaptive ness and adaptations are usually confused as conservative adjustments to the status
quo, but in their technical usage, both are action-oriented. Biological , cognitive, emotional and
social adaptations connote two alternatives: efforts either to effect personal change in order to
meet environmental demands and take advantage of environmental opportunities or to effect
environmental changes so that social and physical environments will be more responsive to
people’s needs, rights and goals.
The concept of coping refers to the special adaptations evoked by the internal experiences of
stress. This model tries to improve the coping patterns of people and their environment so that a
better mach can be attained between an individual’s needs and the characteristics of his/her
environment. Hence, it emphasizes on the person – in – environment.
The ecological model views individual, families and small groups as having transactional
problems and needs as they move from one life stage to another: like entering first grade,
adjusting to puberty, graduating from school, having children, retiring e.t.c., the model’s central
concern is to articulate the transactional problems and needs( of individuals) are identified ,
intervention approaches are then selected and applied to help individuals, families and small
groups resolve the transactional problems and meet their needs.
An ecological model can also focus on maladaptive interpersonal problems and needs and needs
in families and groups, including communication process and dysfunctional relationship patterns.
These difficulties can cover an array of areas including interpersonal conflicts, power struggles,
scapegoat and discrimination. After identifying proper intervention techniques will be
implemented. In general this model suggests the nature of transactions between people and their
environments is the source of all human needs and social problems. The purpose of social work
is to enhance those transactions that maximize growth and development by matching people’s
adaptive capacities with environmental properties. The basic ecological ideas of social work
practice should be integration and connectedness; maintaining diversity; relationship in

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community and the importance of becoming to see emergent properties, rather than only what
exists now.
The Ecosystems Perspective
The combination of general system theory and ecological perspective forms the basis for a
number of practice models that emerged in the basis for a number of practice models that
emerged in the 1970s and that gained professional acceptance in the 1980s. The ecosystems
perspective offers a lens for viewing case phenomenon: it is an orientation to practice, but
doesn’t provide practice principles to focus intervention. Together, general system theory and
ecology describe how human systems interact in their social and physical environments.
Through the use of ecological concepts, the ecosystem perspective identifies adaptive
possibilities between persons and their environments. Using general system theory, it highlights
the way the actors and their situational variables are connected. It favors systematic or circular
construct as contrasted with linear view.
There are three good reasons for adapting ecosystem perspective:
1. Because of its integrative nature: it draws on the strength of many other theories to describe
human behavior in all of its complexity.
2. Its outlook of behavior: it considers the behavior of individuals, groups and families,
organizations, communities as their interconnected relationships, making this an ideal
condition to support generalist social work practice.
3. The ecosystem view clearly focus on how people and their environments fit, rather than
forcing workers to place blame on either one for problems that arise. This accepting view of
human behavior is consistent with the value base of social work; it allows workers and
clients to join forces against the problematic fit of clients and situation rather than assume
clients themselves are inherently deficit
Defining Criteria’s of Ecosystem Perspective
1. View of “Human in Context”
Ecosystem perspective describes humans as very complex made up of biological, psychological,
spiritual, social and cultural beings with thoughts, feelings and observable behaviors. We are
complex wholes with internal parts and, at the same time, we are parts of larger groups. We are
actively adapting to our changing environments: we shape our surrounding at the same time as
our surrounding shapes us. Human beings act consciously and intentionally but, also

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unconsciously and spontaneously. According to ecosystems perspective humans are neither
completely powerful nor powerless. Instead humans play an active role in creating events which
shapes their lives, a role tempered by environmental forces.
2. Focus on Transaction
Transactions are responsible interactions, reflecting the process by which people continually
shape their environments and are shaped by them over time. The phrase “person-environment
symbolizes this interaction. Transactions are more complicated than simple connections of
people with environments. Transactions encompass interaction in the situation as well. E.g. any
person’s behavior that we observe arises from the ongoing interaction of the individuals’ internal
make up combined with the continuous interaction among environmental events. It is at this
intersection or point of transaction that we observe human behavior.
3. Development as Evolutionary Change
The ecosystem perspective views human development as evolutionary. As human grow
physically, emotionally and intellectually, their behaviors reveal and responds to these internal
changes. Therefore, our behavior is evolutionary developed, starting from childhood, in response
to internal and external needs. And the cause for evolutionary development of behavior is not
internal or external but the interaction. Therefore, there are contextual influences, like cultural
identity, physical environment, ethnicity, socio economic, gender as influencing individual life.
4. “Good-ness – of Fit
The ecosystem perspective explains behavior in terms of adapting to a situation. Our specific
actions are best understood as our attempts to competently respond to the situation we encounter;
we do the best we can give what we know about ourselves and what is needed in the situation.
We seek to behave in a ways that fit ourselves and our situation best. Any individual’s behavior
refers to internal and external balance of a person needs and resources to the environment. If
individuals’ behavior is always the best to adapt to their environment, then how problems arise?
Human beings never have the luxury of taking life “one transaction at a time”. No behavior
occurs in isolation from other events. Rather humans respond to multiple internal and
environmental events simultaneously. One behavior can’t fit all. We often find that a behavior
that may be perfectly adaptive in one specific person-environment configuration is a mismatch in
another.

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Whether problems tend to arise when people encounter physical, intellectual, psychological,
emotional or situational challenge depends on the responsiveness of the environment and the
strength of the particular human system. A nurturing and supportive environment often
compensates for a system’s limitation, enabling the system to achieve the good- ness- of fit that
ecosystem, view of health. Under nurturing environment a blind man can do more than eyed-
man, and in demanding environment the eyed man, even gifted in any way will be forced to
immobilize his/ her talent.
5. View of Dysfunction
In the ecosystem view, the terms “maladaptive” and “dysfunctional” don’t really apply. After all,
if behaviors are adaptations to meet internal needs and the demands of the environments, how
can behavior be maladaptive? All behaviors make sense in context, even those behaviors that are
unacceptable and have negative consequences. Describing clients behavior as dysfunctional or
maladaptive leaves the client with labels such as “deviant”, “emotionally disturbed” or
behaviorally troubled. Such conceptions blame clients and neglect the reciprocal responsibilities
of environments for human behavior.
4. Strengths Perspective
Client strengths are resources in working for change and the focus of a contemporary approach
to social work practice. The strengths perspective prescribes to the notion that people have
untapped, undetermined reservoirs of mental, physical, emotional, social, and spiritual abilities
that can be expressed. The presence of this capacity for continued growth and heightened well-
being means that people must be accorded the respect that this power deserves. This capacity
acknowledges both the being and becoming aspect of life.
The strengths perspective, believing all people have a natural power within themselves that can
be released, is consonant with social works fundamental values regarding human worth and
social justice. In fact focusing and building on clients strength is not only a counterweight to the
prevalent deficit model. It is an imperative of the several values that govern our work and the
operation of a democratic and pluralist society including distributive justice, equality, respect for
the dignity of the individual, and the search for maximum authority with in maximum
community.

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Dimensions of Strengths
1 Individual strengths
Aspirations: are considered as one strength of individual, people who are successful in living
have goals and dreams. Individuals may have several /many aspirations, some are ambitious
while some are specific and measure able (achievable) individual aspirations are growth
achievement oriented through time. Individuals’ goals /aspirations change through time in their
life age.
Competencies: refers to one’s capacity to be aware and utilize talents and strengths. Individuals
perceive their competencies through their achievements. Therefore, your competence is your
perception of achieving aspirations. One thing that we should recognize is competencies are not
compared with single norms. That means there is no uniform, single standard for competence in
the world. People, as influenced by their culture, have diversified aspirations; there will be
diversified competence types. Different individuals, groups, communities have their own
competencies, distinctive to their aspirations. People who are successful in living use their
strengths to attain their aspirations.
Confidence is manifested through individual behavior of high self-efficiency, value for one- self,
high hope and morale, internal focus of control; active subjects not passive objects, high
persistence towards goal achievement, non-self blaming, see self as capable of influencing others
and society; people who are successful in living have the confidence to take the next step
towards their goal.
Interaction of the elements of individual strengths; here the basic proposition is “at any time in
point, people who are successful in living have at least one goal, one relevant talent, and
confidence to take the next step.
2 Environmental strength
Resources: - include money, assets and possessions, many other incentives and gradation of
rewards and status present.
Social relations; social world includes access to and contact with varied people. These contacts
also include people who are controller of resources. Therefore, social relations are one means of
accessing resources. In addition social relations provide (furnish) individuals lots of reality
feedback about the transactions and themselves.

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Opportunities: - means whether are there many choices? When there are many choices to act up
on. Differences among opportunities are valued in social work and used to locate relevant
vacuums. But the basic assumption of strengths perspective is environments have “unlimited”
resources. Niches: can be understood as paralleling life domains of living arrangements of
housing, work education, recreation and social relationships. Niches encompass housing, work,
education, recreation, friends &companions, recreation in the community. The quality of niches
for any one is a function of that person’s aspirations, competencies, confidence, environmental
resources, opportunities and people available to that person. Persons quality of life, achievements
and life satisfaction are attributable to the type and quality of niches that person inhabits.
5. Empowerment Perspective
What is Empowerment?
The term “empowerment” has many implications. It refers a concept, a process and outcome.
As a concept: empowerment helps organize thoughts or develop a frame work with in which one
can identify the circumstance of individuals and groups in society. It offers a perspective to
assess the interconnection between personal and political realities. Empowerment is a complex
concept that has personal and political implications. On personal level empowerment refers to a
subjective state of mind, feeling competent and experiencing a sense of control. On political
level, it refers to the objective realities of opportunities in social structure and the reallocation of
power through a modification of social structure. Empowerment conveys both a psychological
sense of personal control or influence, political power and legal rights.
As a process: empowerment is a process of increasing personal, interpersonal or political power
so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations. It is a process whereby persons
that belongs to a stigmatized social category throughout their lives can be assisted to develop and
increase skills in the exercise of interpersonal influence and the performance of valued social
roles. In simple words, the process of empowerment represents the way by which systems gain
control- the way that people, organizations, and community gain mastery over their lives. It is,
therefore, a process through which clients obtain resources- personal, organizational, and
community – that enable them to gain greater control over their environment and to attain their
aspirations.
As an outcome: the term empowerment is commonly used to indicate an outcome as well. Here
it represents a person or a group is empowered. If a person or a group is empowered, they

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possesses the capacity to make effective choices; that is to translate their choices in to desired
actions and outcomes. The capacity to make an effective choice is primarily influenced by two
sets of factors: agency and opportunity structure. Agency is defined as an actor’s ability to make
meaningful choices; that is the actor is able to envisage options and make a choice. Appudarai
(2001) use the term “capacity to aspire” by defining it as the ability to express preferences and
make choices that are associated with leading good life. Nassbaum (2001) argues that people’s
preferences can be manipulated by tradition or intimidation. Sen. (1992) also argues that the
consciousness of the less powerful can be manipulated to the extent that they accept the
legitimacy of the unique order. Opportunity structure is defined as the formal and informal
contexts with in which actors operate. Working together with the agency, these factors give rise
to different degrees of empowerment.

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