Weather - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Weather

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or

cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.[1] Most weather
phenomena occur in the troposphere,[2][3] just below the stratosphere.
Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity,
whereas climate is the term for the statistics of atmospheric conditions
over longer periods of time.[4] When used without qualification,
"weather" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth.

Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences

between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the Thunderstorm near Garajau, Madeira
sun's angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the
tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air
gives rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by
instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is
incident at different angles at different times of the year. On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C
(−40 °F to 100 °F) annually. Over thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit can affect the amount and
distribution of solar energy received by the Earth, thus influencing long-term climate and global climate
change.

Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower
altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the application of science and
technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The system is a chaotic
system; so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole.
Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that
human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns.

Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on
Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to
have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A star's corona is
constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System.
The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind.

1 Causes
2 Shaping the planet Earth
3 Global Weather Video for Year 2015
4 Major wind and pressure systems and related weather
5 Effect on humans
5.1 Effects on populations
6 Forecasting

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7 Modification
8 Microscale meteorology
9 Extremes on Earth
10 Extraterrestrial within the Solar System
11 Space weather
12 See also
13 References
14 External links

On Earth, the common weather phenomena include wind, cloud,

rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include
natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons and ice
storms. Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the
troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere).[3] Weather does
occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the
troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are poorly understood.[5]

Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure, temperature and

moisture differences between one place to another. These
Cumulus mediocris cloud surrounded by
differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot,
stratocumulus
which varies by latitude from the tropics. In other words, the
farther from the tropics one lies, the lower the sun angle is, which
causes those locations to be cooler due to the indirect sunlight.[6] The strong temperature contrast between
polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream.[7] Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical
cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow (see baroclinity).[8] Weather systems in the tropics,
such as monsoons or organized thunderstorm systems, are caused by different processes.

Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital

plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different
times of the year. In June the Northern Hemisphere is tilted
towards the sun, so at any given Northern Hemisphere
latitude sunlight falls more directly on that spot than in
December (see Effect of sun angle on climate).[10] This
effect causes seasons. Over thousands to hundreds of
thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbital parameters
affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received
by the Earth and influence long-term climate. (See
2015 – Warmest Global Year on Record (since
Milankovitch cycles).[11]
1880) – Colors indicate temperature anomalies
(NASA/NOAA; 20 January 2016).[9] The uneven solar heating (the formation of zones of
temperature and moisture gradients, or frontogenesis) can
also be due to the weather itself in the form of cloudiness and precipitation.[12] Higher altitudes are typically
cooler than lower altitudes, which is explained by the lapse rate.[13][14] In some situations, the temperature
actually increases with height. This phenomenon is known as an inversion and can cause mountaintops to be

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warmer than the valleys below. Inversions can lead to the formation of fog and often act as a cap that
suppresses thunderstorm development. On local scales, temperature differences can occur because different
surfaces (such as oceans, forests, ice sheets, or man-made objects) have differing physical characteristics such
as reflectivity, roughness, or moisture content.

Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. A hot surface warms the air above it
causing it to expand and lower the density and the resulting surface air pressure.[15] The resulting horizontal
pressure gradient moves the air from higher to lower pressure regions, creating a wind, and the Earth's rotation
then causes deflection of this air flow due to the Coriolis effect.[16] The simple systems thus formed can then
display emergent behaviour to produce more complex systems and thus other weather phenomena. Large scale
examples include the Hadley cell while a smaller scale example would be coastal breezes.

The atmosphere is a chaotic system, so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects
on the system as a whole.[17] This makes it difficult to accurately predict weather more than a few days in
advance, though weather forecasters are continually working to extend this limit through the scientific study of
weather, meteorology. It is theoretically impossible to make useful day-to-day predictions more than about two
weeks ahead, imposing an upper limit to potential for improved prediction skill.[18]

Weather is one of the fundamental processes that shape the Earth. The process of weathering breaks down the
rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into their constituent substances.[19] During rains precipitation,
the water droplets absorb and dissolve carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. This causes the rainwater to be
slightly acidic, which aids the erosive properties of water. The released sediment and chemicals are then free to
take part in chemical reactions that can affect the surface further (such as acid rain), and sodium and chloride
ions (salt) deposited in the seas/oceans. The sediment may reform in time and by geological forces into other
rocks and soils. In this way, weather plays a major role in erosion of the surface.[20]

EUMETSAT created "A Year in Weather 2015" a narrated video of the earth's weather photographed from
weather satellites for the entire year 2015. Geostationary satellite photographs from EUMETSAT, the Japan
Meteorological Agency and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration were assembled to show
weather changing on earth for 365 days in a time lapse video.[21][22]

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Region Name Pressure Surface Winds Weather

Doldrums Cloudiness, abundant precipitation in all
Equator (ITCZ) seasons; breeding ground for hurricanes.
Low Light, variable winds
(0°) (equatorial Relatively low sea-surface salinity because
low) of high rainfall relative to evaporation
Northeast in Northern
0°–30°N Trade winds Summer wet, winter dry; pathway for
- Hemisphere; Southeast
and S (easterlies) tropical disturbances
in Southern Hemisphere
Little cloudiness; dry in all seasons.
30°N and
Horse latitudes High Light, variable winds Relatively high sea-surface salinity because
S
of high evaporation relative to precipitation
Southwest in Northern
30°–60°N Prevailing Winter wet, summer dry; pathway for
- Hemisphere; Northwest
and S Westerlies subtropical high and low pressure
in Southern Hemisphere
60°N and Stormy, cloudy weather zone; ample
Polar front Low Variable
S precipitation in all seasons
Northeast in Northern
60°–90°N
Polar easterlies - Hemisphere; Southeast Cold polar air with very low temperatures
and S
in Southern Hemisphere
Southerly in Northern
90°N and Cold, dry air; sparse precipitation in all
Poles High Hemisphere; Northerly
S seasons
in Southern Hemisphere

Weather, seen from an anthropological perspective, is something all humans in the world constantly experience
through their senses, at least while being outside. There are socially and scientifically constructed
understandings of what weather is, what makes it change, the effect it has on humans in different situations,
etc.[23] Therefore, weather is something people often communicate about.

Effects on populations

Weather has played a large and sometimes direct part in human history. Aside from climatic changes that have
caused the gradual drift of populations (for example the desertification of the Middle East, and the formation of
land bridges during glacial periods), extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population movements
and intruded directly in historical events. One such event is the saving of Japan from invasion by the Mongol
fleet of Kublai Khan by the Kamikaze winds in 1281.[24] French claims to Florida came to an end in 1565
when a hurricane destroyed the French fleet, allowing Spain to conquer Fort Caroline.[25] More recently,
Hurricane Katrina redistributed over one million people from the central Gulf coast elsewhere across the
United States, becoming the largest diaspora in the history of the United States.[26]

The Little Ice Age caused crop failures and famines in Europe. The 1690s saw the worst famine in France since
the Middle Ages. Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696–1697, during which about one-third of the Finnish
population died.[27]

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Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to

predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given
location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather
informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth
century.[28] Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data
about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific
New Orleans, Louisiana, after being
understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere
struck by Hurricane Katrina. Katrina
will evolve.[29]
was a Category 3 hurricane when it
Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric struck although it had been a category
5 hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico.
pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition,[30][31] forecast
models are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is
still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the
forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills,
teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of
model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive
computational power required to solve the equations that describe the
atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an
incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts
become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for
Forecast of surface pressures five
which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases.
days into the future for the north
The use of ensembles and model consensus helps to narrow the error
Pacific, North America, and north
and pick the most likely outcome.[32][33][34] Atlantic Ocean as on 9 June 2008
There are a variety of end users to weather forecasts. Weather warnings
are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.[35][36] Forecasts based on
temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture,[37][38][39][40] and therefore to commodity traders
within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming
days.[41][42][43] On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day.
Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and the wind chill, forecasts can be used to
plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them.

The aspiration to control the weather is evident throughout human history: from ancient rituals intended to
bring rain for crops to the U.S. Military Operation Popeye, an attempt to disrupt supply lines by lengthening
the North Vietnamese monsoon. The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding;
they include the fog- and low stratus dispersion techniques employed by major airports, techniques used to
increase winter precipitation over mountains, and techniques to suppress hail.[44] A recent example of weather
control was China's preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. China shot 1,104 rain dispersal rockets
from 21 sites in the city of Beijing in an effort to keep rain away from the opening ceremony of the games on 8
August 2008. Guo Hu, head of the Beijing Municipal Meteorological Bureau (BMB), confirmed the success of
the operation with 100 millimeters falling in Baoding City of Hebei Province, to the southwest and Beijing's
Fangshan District recording a rainfall of 25 millimeters.[45]

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Whereas there is inconclusive evidence for these techniques' efficacy, there is extensive evidence that human
activity such as agriculture and industry results in inadvertent weather modification:[44]

Acid rain, caused by industrial emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere,
adversely affects freshwater lakes, vegetation, and structures.
Anthropogenic pollutants reduce air quality and visibility.
Climate change caused by human activities that emit greenhouse gases into the air is expected to affect
the frequency of extreme weather events such as drought, extreme temperatures, flooding, high winds,
and severe storms.[46]
Heat, generated by large metropolitan areas have been shown to minutely affect nearby weather, even at
distances as far as 1,600 kilometres (990 mi).[47]

The effects of inadvertent weather modification may pose serious threats to many aspects of civilization,
including ecosystems, natural resources, food and fiber production, economic development, and human
health.[48]

Microscale meteorology is the study of short-lived atmospheric phenomena smaller than mesoscale, about
1 km or less. These two branches of meteorology are sometimes grouped together as "mesoscale and
microscale meteorology" (MMM) and together study all phenomena smaller than synoptic scale; that is they
study features generally too small to be depicted on a weather map. These include small and generally fleeting
cloud "puffs" and other small cloud features.[49]

On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F)

annually. The range of climates and latitudes across the planet can offer
extremes of temperature outside this range. The coldest air temperature
ever recorded on Earth is −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F), at Vostok Station,
Antarctica on 21 July 1983. The hottest air temperature ever recorded Early morning sunshine over
was 57.7 °C (135.9 °F) at 'Aziziya, Libya, on 13 September 1922,[50] Bratislava, Slovakia
but that reading is queried. The highest recorded average annual
temperature was 34.4 °C (93.9 °F) at Dallol, Ethiopia.[51] The coldest
recorded average annual temperature was −55.1 °C (−67.2 °F) at
Vostok Station, Antarctica.[52]

The coldest average annual temperature in a permanently inhabited The same area, just three hours later,
location is at Eureka, Nunavut, in Canada, where the annual average after light snowfall
temperature is −19.7 °C (−3.5 °F).[53]

Studying how the weather works on other planets has been seen as helpful in understanding how it works on
Earth.[54] Weather on other planets follows many of the same physical principles as weather on Earth, but
occurs on different scales and in atmospheres having different chemical composition. The Cassini–Huygens

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mission to Titan discovered clouds formed from methane or ethane

which deposit rain composed of liquid methane and other organic
compounds.[55] Earth's atmosphere includes six latitudinal circulation
zones, three in each hemisphere.[56] In contrast, Jupiter's banded
appearance shows many such zones,[57] Titan has a single jet stream
near the 50th parallel north latitude,[58] and Venus has a single jet near
the equator.[59]

One of the most famous landmarks in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great
Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least
300 years.[60] On other gas giants, the lack of a surface allows the wind
to reach enormous speeds: gusts of up to 600 metres per second (about Jupiter's Great Red Spot in 1979
2,100 km/h or 1,300 mph) have been measured on the planet
Neptune.[61] This has created a puzzle for planetary scientists. The
weather is ultimately created by solar energy and the amount of energy received by Neptune is only about 1⁄900
of that received by Earth, yet the intensity of weather phenomena on Neptune is far greater than on Earth.[62]
The strongest planetary winds discovered so far are on the extrasolar planet HD 189733 b, which is thought to
have easterly winds moving at more than 9,600 kilometres per hour (6,000 mph).[63]

Weather is not limited to planetary bodies. Like all stars, the sun's
corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a
very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of
mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind. Inconsistencies
in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as coronal
mass ejections, form a system that has features analogous to
conventional weather systems (such as pressure and wind) and is
generally known as space weather. Coronal mass ejections have been
tracked as far out in the solar system as Saturn.[64] The activity of this Aurora Borealis
system can affect planetary atmospheres and occasionally surfaces. The
interaction of the solar wind with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce
spectacular aurorae,[65] and can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as electricity grids and
radio signals.[66]

Weather station
Outline of meteorology

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