EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA

Factors for the rise of nationalism in Africa

1. Invasion of Africa by the Europeans; land alienation, forced labor, harsh treatment
2. Taxation; hut tax, poll tax, “breast” tax
3. Colonialism interfered with political institutions; council of elders replaced by chiefs
and appointees rejected by elders and young
4. Africans were subjected to cultural discrimination by the colonial order, African
culture was regarded as primitive and barbaric e.g. polygamy, female circumcision
5. Growth of urban centers;
6. Enabled different communities to interact and overcome tribal prejudice
7. Many nationalist political parties were founded and thrived in urban centers
8. Racial segregation; social amenities were provided along racial lines and Africans
had the worst services
9. Western education’ the elite were exposed to European history and the United
States, they questioned the behavior of the Europeans from a biblical point of view,
the elite spear headed nationalism
10. Africans were against the introduction of the Kipande system
11. Africans wanted to be allowed to grow cash crops and rearing of animals

External factors
1. African participation in the W.W.I as carriers and combatants, they interacted with
Africans from other countries this broke the myth of European superiority
2. Spread of Leninist – Marxist ideas after Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 (Russian
revolution)
3. Communists attacked colonialism which they argued was part of imperialism whose
main aim was the economic exploitation of the weaker people of the world
4. Pan – Africanism called for the self – determination of the African people
5. W.W.II, Africans gained a lot of exposure, made interactions with other Europeans
who had a more positive attitude towards the Africans this boosted their self -
confidence
6. Formation of U.N.O. which was formed to preserve international peace and security
stressed political independence of all subject people as a way of obtaining global
peace
7. Asian nationalism motivated African nationalists; attainment of independence by
India and Ghana
8. Existence of independent countries e.g. Ethiopia and Liberia
9. Emergence of new world powers i.e. USSR and USA who condemned imperialism
10. The British labor party was against colonialism; socialist policies
11. Africans studying abroad formed students groups that articulated African grievance
In what ways did Pan-Africanism promote African Nationalism in Africa?
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  Through encouragement and creating nationalistic awareness among Africans
 Through the mass media, publications by Marcus Garvey such as Africa for
Africans.
 Organized conferences to discuss the future of colonization e.g Kenyatta,
Nkrumah were told to go home and lead their countries to independence
 Pan Africanism enhanced African unity struggle
 It was the basis of formation of the O.A.U which helped increase nationalism

NATIONALISM IN GHANA

Was formerly known as Gold Coast

Nationalism differed from that of Zimbabwe since there were few settlers and opposition
to the black rule was minimal

Stages of Nationalism

- 1868; the Fronte confederation was formed in response to British imperialism

- 1897; Aborigines Rights Protection Society was formed by chiefs and African elite to
defend African land from alienation by the Europeans.
- 1930; Gold Coast Youth Conference was formed by educated Africans led by
Danquah. They demanded for the political rights and an end to social and economic
injustice
- 1946; governor Burns constitution amendment, Africans were allowed to elect 18
members to the Legco of whom 13 were to be drawn from among the chiefs, 5
popularly elected. The provision was rejected since the chiefs were seen as colonial
agents.
- 1946; United Gold Coast Convention was formed by professionals led by Danquah
who were against burns
- 1947; Nkurumah became the secretary general of U.G.C.C.
- 1947 – 1948; ex – servicemen protested to Governor Gerald Creasy for unfulfilled
promises and the high inflation in Ghana.
- Riots broke out and 29 Africans were killed (Accra riots)
- Nkurumah and his friends were arrested
- 1948; a commission was setup to investigate the cause of the riots
- 1949; Nkurumah broke ranks with U.G.C.C. because they were conservative and
formed the Convention People’s Party
- 1950 rally, C.P.P advocated for the use of non – violent methods e.g. newspapers,
campaigns, boycotts and strikes
- 1950; there were riots instigated by C.P.P and Nkrumah was arrested and detained
- 1951; elections were held and C.P.P won, Nkrumah was released and became the
leader of government business
- 1951; fresh elections were held and C.P.P won

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- A new party, National Liberation Movement was formed by the Ashanti who were
uncomfortable with Nkrumah for 2 reasons;
- He was from a small ethnic community
- His ideas were radical
- 1956; elections were held & C.P.P won 70 out of the 104 seats
- 1957 6th march; Ghana attained independence under Nkrumah

Role played by C.P.P in the struggle for independence in Ghana

1. Demanded voting rights be extended to all people

2. Mobilized the people to oppose colonial rule / sensitized Africans on their rights
3. Advocated for a unitary government

Political parties that fought for independence in Ghana

 The United Gold Coast Convention (U.G.C.C)
 Convention People’s Party (C.P.P)
 The National League of the Gold Coast (N.L.G.C)

Factors for the growth/that caused of nationalism in Ghana

1. Unemployment; the colonial education produced many school levers who could not
get jobs and this created discontent
2. Western education; a few Africans attained higher education were well versed in
the ideals of democracy, equality and freedom. They fought for the rights of their
people
3. Farmers were upset by the merge profits they received from the sale of cocoa to
European firms who exploited them. Consumer prices kept on increasing.
4. Ghanaians were forced to cut down their cocoa trees due to the outbreak of
“swollen shoot” disease, this upset them.
5. Ex – servicemen who participated in the W.W.II met with different people from other
countries with whom they shared ideas. This exposed them to radical nationalism.
6. Africans were denied import & export licenses in favor of the whites.
7. Africans were opposed to the 1946 constitutional provision of governor burns.
8. Decisions by the colonial government to construct one university for West Africa at
Ibadan Nigeria instead of Ghana
9. Inadequate representation in the Legco caused discontent among the Ghanaians.
10. Loss of powers by the traditional African chiefs created discontent against the
colonial government
11. The need to guard against possible land alienation by the British united the
Africans.
12. Introduction of taxation by the colonial government was resented.
13. The attainment of independence of India and Pakistan in 1947 encouraged the
Ghanaians to demand for their right to govern themselves.

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14. The United Nations’ charter’s declaration of importance of political independence
for all people inspired the Ghanaians.
15. The charismatic leadership provided by Kwame Nkrumah united the people in the
struggle against colonial domination.

Role played by Kwame Nkrumah in the struggle for independence

1. He participated in the Manchester pan – African conference of 1945 where African

nationalists agreed to go back to their countries and lead the struggle for
independence.
2. 1946, he became the secretary general of U.G.C.C after his return to Gold Coast
3. 1949, he founded the C.P.P which led the country to independence
4. 1951, C.P.P under Nkrumah won elections and formed the 1 st African government
before independence. His leadership was marked by economic, political and social
developments.
5. C.P.P under Nkrumah advocated for the unity of all Africans in the country and this
enhanced the, progress towards political liberation.
6. United farmers, the elite, students and businessmen in the struggle against the
British in Gold Coast
7. C.P.P and Nkrumah used positive action which involved non – violent strikes and
political meetings against the British.
8. 1957, Nkrumah led Gold Coast to independence
9. Started a newspaper, Accra Evening News, in which the African grievances and
C.P.P views about the plight of Africans were articulated.

Nkrumah’s contribution to the liberation struggle in Africa

1. Supported other African leaders whenever they faced political threats from their
colonial masters e.g. Congo’s Patrice Lumumba.
2. Funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Algeria & Guinea
3. Championed trade unionism in Africa under which political parties flourished
4. Attended the 5th pan – African conference in Manchester which championed self-
determination and decolonization in Africa
5. Convened pan – African conferences that culminated in the formation of O.A.U

Methods / ways used to fight for independence in Ghana

1. Public / political rallies
2. Trade unions
3. Mobilized protests, demonstrations, riots, boycotts & go – slows
4. Mass media (newspapers)
5. International for a e.g. pan – African movement
6. Formation of political parties
7. Constitutional negotiations
8. Songs & slogans / poems to attack colonialism
9. Participated in the pre – independence elections of 1954 & 1956
10. Legislative council

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 Problems faced by nationalists in Ghana

1. Lacked adequate funds

2. Disunity among Africans
3. Rivalry among political parties e.g. C.P.P & National Liberation Movement(N.L.M)
advocated for fedalism delaying independence
4. Arrest of African nationalist by the colonial government
5. Leadership wrangles & ideological differences
6. Poor means of transport & communication
7. Brutal killings of Africans e.g. Accra riots

Reasons why Ghana achieved independence before (earlier) other African

countries

1. Economic developments brought by the cultivation of cocoa promoted political

changes as the African were allowed to grow cocoa
2. Large group of educated African elite spearheaded the decolonization process in
Ghana
3. Nkrumah was a popular leader who united Africans
4. Support from pan – African movement where Nkrumah was an active member
5. The country was small and well served with good transport & communication which
made the movement quick and effective.
6. Small presence of European settlers in Ghana made the struggle not have any
complication

How successful were the nationalists in Ghana? (Achievements)

1. Increased African representation in the Legco; by 1946 the number had risen to 18
from 6 in 1916
2. Improved economic conditions
3. Majority of African ministers were to govern Ghana
4. Attained their independence in 1957

Ways in which the achievement of independence in Ghana contributed to the

liberation of other African countries from colonial rule

1. Motivated other countries to fight against colonial rule

2. Nkrumah became more vocal in agitating for the course of other nationalists in the
global for a / U.N.O
3. Ghana played a leading role in the formation of the O.A.U. which was instrumental in
the liberation of other states
4. Ghana gave financial and material support to African liberation movements
5. Ghana allowed some African nationalists to establish their military bases in Ghana

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 NATIONALISM IN MOZAMBIQUE.

Mozambique was a Portuguese colony. Portuguese rule started in 1891 as a result of

the Anglo – Portuguese treaty.
In 1951, the governor of Portugal declared Mozambique a colony and took over the
administration from the Portuguese companies until 1975.

Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique

Internal factors

1. Arbitrary replacement of African traditional leaders with Portuguese appointees

2. Land alienation by Portuguese settlers
3. Africans were forced to pay taxes
4. Disrespect of African culture and traditional leaders e.g. making African women their
mistresses
5. Africans were forced to work on settler farms, the laborers were treated as slaves
6. The Portuguese practiced racial discrimination as Africans were treated with
contempt by the settlers
7. Restriction of African movement in & out of Mozambique limiting their freedom of
expression and intellectual advancement was opposed
8. The security police treated Africans with great cruelty, any political arrest was
crushed ruthlessly
9. Africans were not allowed to strike, form political associations and trade unions /
fight for reforms / vote
10. Africans were forced to grow cash crops and reduce the production of agricultural
consumer goods, this led to famine

External factors

1. Encouraged by the independence of Ghana, India and Pakistan

2. Rise of the cold war, china gave support to the FRELIMO party
3. Pressure from the USA asking European powers in Africa to decolonize
4. Formation of O.A.U. in 1963 which called for freedom of Africans from colonialism

Course of nationalism in Mozambique

- 1960; the Makonde people formed the Mozambique African National Union (MANU)
- MANU organized a peaceful protest in June 1960 against forced labor and taxes, the
governor ordered the arrest of the demonstrators and when people resisted the
police opened fire killing about 600 people
- The government banned all African organizations with membership of more than 30
people
- African political organizations engaged in underground activities due to such
measures

6
- 1962; Nyerere invited the different liberation groups in Mozambique to operate from
Tanzania and promised to give them political support. He encouraged the
organizations to merge and they united to form the Liberation Front of Mozambique
(FRELIMO). Eduardo Mondlane was its president
- From 1964, FRELIMO started full scale guerilla warfare in Mozambique, with the war
breaking out at once in 4 provinces in the northwest.
- This forced the Portuguese to station their troops all over the country.
- In 1969, Eduardo was assassinated and Samora Machel replaced him in 1970.
- 1972, the Portuguese defeated FRELIMO after getting support from South Africa
and Rhodesia.
- FRELIMO got support from ZANU fighters in Zimbabwe and by 1972 FRELIMO had
liberated Mozambique
- In September 1974 the Portuguese government held talks with FRELIMO and
agreed;
- To establish a provincial government consisting of Portuguese and FRELIMO
ministers
- The provincial government to be in office for 9 months in order to oversee smooth
transition to independence
- 25th June 1975 Mozambique attained independence with Samora Machel as the
president

WHY NATIONALIST ACTIVITIES DID NOT TAKE ROOT IN MOZAMBIQUE UNTIL

THE 1950s
1. Mozambique was a large country and it was hard to unite the people
2. Poor means of transport and communication which hindered coordination
3. There was strict and rigorous censorship by the security forces which made it
impossible for nationalist mass movement to emerge
4. The authoritarian government set up by Dr. Salazar between 1928 – 1968 in Lisbon
could not accept the idea of freedom and independence of colonies. It was against
the law to form political parties / trade unions
5. There were no constitutional means in Mozambique to register protests
6. There were very few African intellectuals in the country

REASONS WHICH ENCOURAGED NATIONALISTS TO USE ARMED STRUGGLE

TO ATTAIN INDEPENDENCE
1. There were strict & rigorous censorship by security forces
2. Authoritarian government by Salazar
3. No constitutional means to register their protests
4. Intellectual Africans were few this encouraged Africans to took up arms
5. Were encouraged by countries like Tanzania who offered them training basis and
material support
6. Government support in form of arms, medicine and finances from Russia and china
7. Got encouragement from Zimbabwe
8. USA and western countries were not offering any peaceful solutions to the problems
in Mozambique

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REASONS WHY FRELIMO SUCCEEDED IN ITS ARMED STRUGGLE AGAINST THE
PORTUGUESE
1. FRELIMO organized attacks from different points at the same time leaving the
Portuguese confused / coordinated effectively
2. Use of guerilla warfare in the heavily forested areas strained colonial resources
3. They had support from the local people who joined the war, provided food,
information and necessities
4. FRELIMO knew the terrain well unlike the Portuguese
5. FRELIMO cultivated their own food to relieve the locals of the burden of supplying
the forces with food
6. The nationalists got support from the communist countries e.g. USSR,
Czechoslovakia and china in form of guerillas, provision of food, medicine, weapons
and finances
7. Mozambique’s highly forested areas provided good cover for the guerilla fighters
from the Portuguese planes
8. FRELIMO system of administration in the liberated areas wooed more people to
support the guerillas. In these areas;
 Forced labor and taxation was abolished
 Schools and health centres were established
 Forceful cultivation of cash crops was abolished and peasant farmers were
allowed to form cooperatives
This made FRELIMO very popular and many Africans supported them
9. Nationalists were also supported by independent African states through the O.A.U.
liberation committee that had headquarters in Dar es Salaam; hosted guerillas,
provided them with training, finance, weapons and other resources.
10. FRELIMO was supported by women who mobilized the communities to support the
struggle and also had guerilla units
11. Ethnicity was eliminated among nationalists through;
 The mingling of the people of different origins in the same fighting units
 Use of traditional songs and dances instilled national consciousness in the
fighters
 Use of Portuguese language which was widely spoken by most of the people
to unify them
12. Leaders were well organized / coordinated the struggle
13. Received information about the movements of the Portuguese troops
14. FRELIMO collaborated with the freedom fighters from south Rhodesia and fought
together against the Portuguese bases in Mozambique.
15. Coups in Lisbon carried out by officers who were against colonial rule forced the
new Portuguese rulers to sign an agreement with FRELIMO and handed over power
to Africans in 1975

CONTRIBUTIONS OF NYERERE IN STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN

MOZAMBIQUE
1. Allowed liberation movements to operate from his country
2. Encouraged different liberation movements to merge and form one strong movement
3. Gave fighters logistical and financial aid

8
 REASONS WHY IT TOOK LONG FOR MOZAMBIQUE TO ACHIEVE
INDEPENDENCE
1. Portugal was reluctant to part with the economic wealth of Mozambique
2. Portugal was ruled by kings who had no regard for human rights
3. Portugal regarded Mozambique as one of its provinces and no a colony
4. Portugal had succeeded in suppressing revolts by Africans before nationalism took
root in Mozambique
5. Lack of unity among Africans until the 1960s
6. Illiteracy among Africans in Mozambique

FACTORS WHICH FAVORED THE SUCCESS OF FRELIMO NATIONALISTS

DURING THEIR STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN MOZAMBIQUE
1. Use of guerilla tactics to attack the Portuguese from different parts of the country
strained colonial resources
2. The local population was recruited into the army which outnumbered the Portuguese
army.
3. Mozambique was highly forested thus provided good cover for the guerilla fighters
from the Portuguese war planes.
4. FRELIMO fighters were working on familiar terrain
5. FRELIMO nationalists cultivated their food thus being self-sufficient in food supplies.
6. The nationalists were aided financially, materially and morally by communist
countries which enabled them to continue in their struggle for independence
7. Support by O.A.U. inspired the nationalist to continue with the struggle
8. The practice of FRELIMO of setting up administrative structures in liberated areas
encouraged the Africans in Mozambique to support the struggle
9. The recognition of the role of women helped to mobilize the communities to support
the struggle
10. Eliminations of ethnic differences appealed to all Mozambicans to join in the
common cause / /they were united
11. FRELIMO leaders were well organized / coordinated the struggle effectively
12. FRELIMO fighters received constant flow of information about the movement the
Portuguese troops.

METHODS USED BY THE NATIONALISTS IN MOZAMBIQUE TO STRUGGLE

FOR INDEPENDENCE
1. Mass media
2. Formation of political associations e.g. MANU to articulate their grievances
3. Use of guerilla movements e.g. COREMO
4. Strikes by dock workers and peasants
5. Formation of political movements e.g. FRELIMO
6. FRELIMO built schools and health centres as a way of gaining support from the
Africans
7. Protests

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 PROBLEMS FACED BY FRELIMO IN ITS STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
1. Severe shortage of food, clothes and medicine when the war started, some
communities migrated from such areas to areas where supplies were available.
2. The Catholic Church viewed it negatively as a terrorist organization which made
Africans faithful in supporting the liberation movement
3. Internal division due to ideological differences and selfish ambition among some
nationalists e.g. some African elite saw FRELIMO as an instrument of acquiring
power and economic assets for their own selfish benefits.
4. FRELIMO encountered competition from rival guerilla movements e.g. Revolutionary
Committee of Mozambique (COREMO) which broke away from FRELIMO in 1965
as some of the nationalist leaders were unhappy with FRELIMO’s lean towards
socialism.
5. The assassination Eduardo Mondlane on the 3 rd of February 1969 was a setback to
the struggle
6. The Portuguese adopted cruel methods in fighting civilians who supported the
nationalists e.g. in 1972 December, about 400 African civilians were massacred at
Wiriyamu for protesting against the Portuguese administration (arrest and killing of
many nationalists)
7. The apartheid regime in South Africa and the unilateral declaration of independence
in southern Rhodesia combined with the Portuguese to fight the nationalists in
Mozambique.
8. There were many tribes and it was difficult to unite them.
9. FRELIMO was denied western aid; this made them to turn to Russia and china for
assistance

NATIONALISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

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It was more complex than elsewhere in Africa.

REASONS
1. Unlike other countries in Africa which were colonized by one power, it was colonized
by both the Boers and the British.
2. Existence of valuable mineral deposits made the European powers more aggressive
in their efforts to control wealth in South Africa.
3. South Africa consisted of the following groups before attaining independence;
 The Indians, went there as laborers in the tea and sugar plantations.
 The colored
 Boers / Afrikaners, descendants of the Dutch
 Indigenous Africans who were the majority
- Nationalism in south Africa included the following;
 British nationalism
 Afrikaner nationalism
 African nationalism

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

- Began with the Afrikaner nationalism in the 19 th century against the British political
control in the country
- The Boers moved away from the British rule and trekked into the interior of south
Africa and conquered the Zulu and the Ndebele.
- The Boers were interested in controlling the Transvaal (due to the diamond and the
gold)
- From 1886, the British controlled the Transvaal region and this led to conflict
between the Boers and the British
- In 1910, the union of South Africa was formed comprising of the Boers and the
British
- Botha was the 1st prime minister under the union
- Afrikaners however took political control from the British which laid down African
nationalism
- The union passed segregate laws aimed at completely subjugating Africans e.g.
apartheid policy, immorality act e.t.c.
- The apartheid policy of 1948 formed the climax of the Afrikaner nationalism
- Under Dr. Malani, the nationalists’ party came to power and entrenched
segregationist policy against Africans and other non – whites and advocated for a
program of total European supremacy, this stimulated African nationalism.
- African nationalism was first expressed through the founding of the independent
churches and the formation of local organizations e.g. the Orange River organization
- Africans continued to struggle until 1994 when the country was granted
independence

FACTORS FOR THEGROWTH OF NATIOANLISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

11
1. The spread of Christianity and Christian values about equality before God, yet
Afrikaners were discriminating then aroused African consciousness.
2. Africans resented the alienation of land by the Afrikaners thus making them
dependent on Afrikaners for employment as the native land act of 1913 denied them
the right to purchase land outside the areas set aside for them.
3. Influence of pan – Africanists e.g. W.E.B Dubois who encouraged Rev. Dube who
had undergone western education in the U.S.A. to fight for equality among blacks
and whites
4. Introduction of pass laws which compelled Africans to carry pass books thus
controlling their movement and avoiding deserting their European employers.
5. Africans resented forced labor. Skilled jobs were reserved for Europeans while
Africans were confined to manual labor.
6. Development of urban centres which enabled Africans to meet and form close ethnic
relations which promoted their political consciousness
7. The introduction of apartheid policy which segregated the Africans in residential
areas in 1948 e.g. hospitals, schools were different.
8. Presence of African elite e.g. Walter Sisulu, nelson Mandela who pioneered African
nationalism.
9. Ex – soldiers who participated in the W.W.II were exposed to democratic ideas.

THE AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

- Founded in 1912 by Pixley Ka Izaka Seme and Rev. John Dube who elected as the
1st president of the party
- It was initially known as South African native congress (SANC) and changed its
name in 1923 to ANC
- Other members were Thomas Mapikela, Walter Rubusana, Sam Makgatho and
Solomon Paatye.
- Their aim was to form a unified African nation and overcome segregate laws and
policies.
- The organization favored use of non – violent methods.
- 1943; ANC youth league was formed and among the leading members were nelson
Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo and A.B Xuma.
- They resolved to use the following methods to achieve national liberation;
- Militant action
- Strikes, boycotts and civil disobedience like demonstrations.
- Violent confrontations between ANC and the government broke out in 1952 in
Witwatersrand, Kimberly’s Eastern Cape.

OBJECTIVES OF ANC
1. To unite all black people so as to win majority rule in South Africa / fight for
independence
2. To encourage a united anti – racial activities / opposed apartheid / racial
discrimination
3. To remove all forms of injustices / economic exploitation
4. To win a vote / franchise for all people of South Africa

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 FREEDOM CHARTER
- Albert Luthuli became the president of ANC which became very popular.
- 1955; the congress of people was organized by Luthuli and it included ANC, trade
unions and organization of colored people. They adopted the “freedom charter”
- Proclaimed that south Africa belonged to all who lived there both blacks and whites.
A free country based on political equality and power sharing among different races.
- The charter was declared illegal and ANC members were arrested and charged with
treasons.
- 1959; ANC split into two, those who supported multi – racial ideas of the charter and
those who believed that south Africa was for blacks.
- Robert Sobukwe formed pan African congress which believed south Africa was for
the blacks.
- He organized nationwide campaigns against pass law for they discriminated against
Africans.
- In one of the campaigns the police massacred 67 unarmed protestors in Sharpeville,
Transvaal on 21st march 1960.
- 200 Africans including school children were seriously injured during the massacre
- 1960; ANC & PAC were outlawed and over 2000 African were detained\
- Political activities went underground for the fear of arrest
- Others went into exile and opened military bases in Tanzania and Zambia.
- Mandela formed fighting wing of ANC “Umukhonto we Sizwe”, spear of the nation
- PAC formed a similar fighting wing “poqo”
- 1963; police discovered the underground headquarters of African resistance at
Rivonia.ANC & PAC members were arrested, Mandela, Sisulu Govan Mbeki,
Andrew Mlangeni
- They were implicated of sabotage campaign against government and condemned of
life imprisonment.

THE BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS

Formed by a medical student Steve Biko in 1969 to carry on African nationalism after
most leaders were imprisoned
Aims
1. Fight for workers rights
2. To develop a sense of confidence among Africans on their own capacity
3. Rejection of cooperation with the whites
4. Steve was arrested in 1979 and died while in custody due to torture. All black
consciousness organizations were banned and their leaders imprisoned.
5. By this time most of the blacks had been confines into homestead reserves known
as Bantustans, based on ethnic groupings.

REASONS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BANTUSTANS

1. Wanted to establish Africans self – development separately in Bantu homesteads
2. Wanted to remove Africans from European settlement areas thus controlling the
African activities effectively
3. To divide Africans along ethnic lines especially in urban centres
4. To segregate whites from non – whites

13
5. Impoverish Africans so that they can sell their labor to the settlers cheaply
6. To alienate more land for the white settlers

THE PEAK OF NATIONALISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

- 1983; P.W. Botha amended the constitution for parliament to 3 chambers with 88
seats i.e. 50 white chamber seats, 13 Indian seats and 25 colored seats.
- Aim of the above was to divide the black nationalists by giving coloreds more
political previlledges.
- Each chamber was only allowed to deal with matters affecting their own ethnic
groups
- The new arrangement pleased neither the Africans nor the white nationalists.
- Political upheavals increased in the 1980s
- More radical organizations emerged e.g. United Democratic Front (UDF) and the
National Front.
- UDF got support from all parts of south Africa municipal workers and churches
joined it which criticized the apartheid regime.
- 1985, there was increased riots, boycotts and strikes especially in urban centres.
- The government declared a state of emergency which lasted an year.
- African protests attracted the attention of the international community e.g. USA and
west European countries which reacted by putting economic sanctions against south
Africa.
- In 1989, Botha was forced out of office and replaced by De Klerk who was a
moderate
- He released Walter Sisulu and others from prison except Mandela who refused to
denounce violence as a method of the struggle for independence.
- In 1990, De Klerk lifted the ban on all political parties
- 1991, most of the oppressive racist laws were repealed e.g. international
organization act of 1960 that and been used to ban ANC & PAC
- Mandela was released in 11th February 1990 after 27 years in prison.
- ANC which was headed by Mandela enjoyed support from all over South Africa
while inkatha freedom party headed by mango – suthu butheliezi enjoyed support
from the Zulu, wanted a federal constitution.
- 1994, an all race election was held and ANC won by 62.6%
- On 10th may 1994, nelson Mandela was sworn in as the 1 st black president in South
Africa after 350 years of white domination.

CONTRIBUTION OF MANDELA IN THE STRUGGLE FOR INEPENDENCE IN SOUTH

AFRICA
1. He was a member of ANC youth league which believed in the use of force to
achieve African independence
2. He was a lawyer and assisted Africans who got in trouble with the law.
3. Founder of the fighting wing of the ANC “umokhonto we sizwe” which was involved
in the campaign of sabotage
4. 1952, he and the ANC were involved in defiance of segregation laws so that Africans
sat on benches marked “whites only”

14
5. 1955, he was among the leaders who formulated the freedom charter that called for
equality for all races in south Africa.
6. From 1961, he became the leader of ANC and travelled the country talking to people
about the apartheid
7. 1962, he went to London and some parts of Africa e.g. Algeria where he underwent
some training on guerrilla warfare.
8. He was arrested in south Africa and imprisoned for 5 years for incitement and
leaving the country illegally.
9. He was sentenced to life imprisonment due to his link with sabotage campaign.
10. He refused to denounce the violence against apartheid despite promises of freedom
11. He wrote to the president of South Africa in 1989 stating his position on violence
12. When he was released he became the president ANC
13. 1994, he was elected the 1st black president of south Africa

CONTRIBUTION OF SOBUKWE
- Became the editor of a newspaper “the africanist” which articulated African
grievances
- Founded pan – African congress party which struggled for independence
- During the Sharpeville massacre he was arrested and imprisoned in roben island

CONTRIBUTION OF LUTHULI
1. 1953, became the president of ANC
2. 1953 put under house arrest
3. 1954, organized bus boycott by Africans at Alexandra town
4. 1955, participated in the drafting of the freedom charter
5. 1961, awarded the Nobel peace prize for the recognition of his efforts in fighting the
apartheid rule using peaceful methods
6. Published a book, let my people go.
7. 1967, died when he fell from a moving bus

WHY SOUTH AFRICA TOOK LONG TO ACHIEVE MAJORITY RULE

1. Nationalists were arrested and imprisoned
2. Those who attempted protests were tortured to death e.g. Steve Biko
3. A lot of violence was used on any demonstrations e.g. the Sharpeville
4. Divide and rule policy used by the government by establishing black homesteads
5. Banning of political parties and other organizations
6. Lack of finances and other resources
7. The white government possessed a lot of wealth and was able to suppress the
nationalist movement
8. Failure of economic sanctions as some countries were not ready to severe relations
with South Africa
9. Nationalists were denied access to state owned mass media outlets and most of
their newspapers banned.

METHODS USED IN THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN SOUTH

AFRICA

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1. Organized political parties to articulate their grievances e.g. PAC & ANC
2. Trade unions were used to press for better working conditions and living conditions
of workers
3. Organized protest marches, demonstrations and defiance campaigns
4. Force / military action; formed armed wings
5. Diplomacy; contracted OAU and UNO to intervene; the international community put
up sanctions against South Africa
6. Nationalists who were arrested / detained went on hunger strikes to press the
government to grant them their rights
7. Mass media; radio stations, pamphlets and newspapers
8. Church especially the Anglican archbishop Desmond tutu
9. They were involved in direct and indirect negotiations with the government

CHALLENGES NATIONALISTS FACED

1. Many were killed during the apartheid rule
2. Were arrested / detained e.g. Mandela, Oliver Tambo
3. Nationalists were forced to flee their country to other African countries e.g. Kenya,
angola, Zambia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe.
4. African political parties were outlawed and the nationalists persecuted
5. Journalists were harassed and their newspapers proscribed by the government
6. Trade unionists and other African leaders were perpetually intimidated by security
agents.
7. The government employed divide and rule tactics to divide the Africans by
establishing Bantustans
8. The pass laws were used to curtail the freedom of movement of hthe nationalists
e.g. the native act of 1952.
9. Nationalists were denied access to state owned radio
10. Lack of funds and other resources

METHODS USED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY TO HASTEN THE

ATTAINMENT OF MAJORITY RULE IN SOUTH AFRICA
1. Put economic sanctions; the international community refused to trade with south
Africa
2. Military sanctions; members of UNO & OAU were forbidden to sell arms to south
Africa
3. Diplomat relations; countries stopped having diplomatic relations with south Africa

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA BETWEEN 1990 & 1994 WHICH

LED TO THE PEACEFUL INTRODUCTION OF MAJORITY RULE IN THE COUNTRY
1. Initiation of dialogue between all racial groups by president Fredrick De Klerk
2. Relaxation reforms / accepting African political parties
3. The release of prominent African political prisoners

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