AFRICAN NATIONALISM

BY Ma’am Moloko
What is Nationalism?

Nationalism is defined as having a sense of belonging to and identifying with a nation. This includes
being linked to people you do not know and includes civil rights such as the right to vote and to own
land.
African nationalism started developing in the early 1900s. Prior to the 1900s, Africans did fight for
their freedom, but it was during the 1900s that they began to develop ideas of nationalism. Some
Africans began wanting to be free and to have a say in this land in comparison to the whites. Some
people thought that a nationalist movement should include all South Africans equally, but others felt
that this was not possible under a white government that supported segregation policies. They
believed that black South Africans should develop their own sense of African nationalist pride.
African nationalism in South Africa started as a form of resistance to colonialism and segregation.
Many black South Africans had supported Britain in the South African War between the British and
Afrikaners because they hoped that this would ensure better economic and political conditions, such
as an end to the pass laws and the right to vote. But after the war, it soon became clear that the
Union of South Africa would be based on white political control at the expense of black South
Africans. A new government was going to be formed, but it was not going to include the non-whites.
In all four colonies, native congresses were formed. The four colonies were the Cape Colony, Natal
(which were originally British colonies), while the Orange Free State and Transvaal were once
Afrikaner territories. In 1906, the Transvaal Native Congress wrote to the British Parliament to
complain about the pass laws, but their letter was ignored. This was not a successful start in the
fight for nationalism.
In 1909, three African newspaper editors—Walter Rubusana, J.T. Jabavu, and John Dube—called
together a meeting: the South African Native National Convention in Bloemfontein. The meeting
Union of South Africa

In 1909, a delegation went to London to ask the British government to intervene, but the British
government ignored the delegation. They were opposed to the formation of a government because
they knew that they would not receive the same political rights as the whites. In May 1910, the Union
of South Africa was formed in which only white men had all the political power. The new government,
consisting of Afrikaners, immediately passed laws that favored the whites. Only white males could
vote, and only whites could own land in South Africa. This meant that the non-whites were not
regarded as citizens, and Africans could not say that they belonged to the land of their ancestors
anymore. This was a huge setback for African nationalism.

South African Native National Congress

The first major step in the rise of African nationalism in South Africa was the formation of the South
African Native National Congress (SANNC) in January 1912. The Reverend John Dube was elected as its
first president. The aims of the SANNC were to unite Africans by overcoming ethnic, regional, and
linguistic differences, which basically meant trying to unite the Zulu, Pedi, Ndebele, and so on as one.
Secondly, they also wanted to encourage united action. Thirdly, they wanted to oppose discrimination
and prejudice and to win political rights for all. They were very moderate in their actions and used
letters and appeals as their form of protest action. During this time, there were no thoughts of
marching in the streets and other radical forms of protests. Protest action was dignified and very calm.
One of the first actions they took was to send another delegation to London to protest against the 1913
Land Act. This act effectively took away ownership of all the land from Africans; ownership of land was
now exclusively for the whites only.
• Early ANC
In 1919, the SANNC sent yet another delegation
overseas to Paris, where the peace conference after
the First World War was being held. They hoped to
gain support from the British government for self-
determination for black people in South Africa, but
again, they were unsuccessful. Self-determination
means wanting to form their own government and
to control their own lives. The early ANC was a
moderate organization that relied on peaceful
petitions, letters, and appeals to the authorities
rather than militant action. Many of the leaders
were educated black men, including ministers,
lawyers, teachers, newspaper editors, and
businessmen. Their supporters were mainly
educated middle-class urban blacks. They did not
pay much attention to the needs of the black
workers and poor people living in the rural reserves.
Some historians believe that the SANNC was
specifically helping those blacks who were educated
and had money.
Industrial and Commercial Workers Union

However, another organization emerged that gained more support from the working class or workers.
This was the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU), which was formed in 1919 as a trade
union among Cape Town dock workers. During the 1920s, it played a leading role in organizing
protests against the policies of the government and had branches throughout Southern Africa, mainly
in rural areas. However, by the end of the 1920s, it began to decline. During this period, the ICU had
mass support, but the ANC did not. It was seen by many as only helping educated, wealthy urban
blacks rather than the masses and was regarded as being too cautious or moderate in its approach.
Some felt that the ANC was too slow and too polite.
In 1923, the South African Native National Congress officially became known as the African National
Congress (ANC).

African National Congress

During the 1930s, the ANC worked with other organizations to protest against further segregation
laws, but again, without success. After this, black political organizations became frustrated with the
moderate approach and began calling for a more determined form of African nationalism. Some
members were tired of the old ways of protesting, which were not achieving any success.
In 1940, Dr. Alfred Xuma became president of the ANC and gave it a new sense of purpose through his
strong, active leadership. He wanted to cooperate with Coloured and Indian leaders to present a
united front against discrimination. In 1943, the ANC, under Xuma, drew up a document called African
Claims in South Africa, which called for votes for all adults, a fair distribution of land, the right for
Africans to own land in urban areas, and an end to discrimination in the workplace.
Youth League

In 1943, younger members of the ANC formed the Congress Youth League (CYL) with Anton
Lembede as its first president and Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and Oliver Tambo as members.
The Congress Youth League would later become the ANC Youth League. These young leaders
accused older ANC leaders of representing the elite and wealthy and not assisting the masses who
were poor. They felt that the old leaders of the ANC did not do enough to bring about change and
did not transform the ANC into a political organization that represented most of the people who
were actually poor. They wanted to overcome the conservative, old-fashioned attitudes of the
older members of the ANC and turn it into a more active nationalist organization that would take
the lead in bringing about change for South Africans of all classes and races.
During the 1940s, a minority group within the ANC, calling themselves Africanists, felt that black
Africans should organize separately. The Africanist view was strongly supported by Anton
Lembede. After World War II, a more determined form of nationalism emerged within the ANC,
especially after the National Party came to power in 1948 and implemented apartheid. The new
apartheid government immediately began passing more harsh laws to protect white interests and
enforce segregation of the races. The ANC leadership knew that they would have to resist these
apartheid laws and discrimination.
At the 1949 ANC conference, members of the CYL were elected to leadership positions in the ANC.
The leadership of the ANC had now changed, with young, energetic members from the early
1940s, such as Sisulu, Tambo, and Mandela, now in charge. They were determined to turn the ANC
into an activist organization with mass support. They were prepared to take radical action and
transform the ANC into a radical organization, whereas in the past, the ANC had taken only
moderate action.
In 1949, the ANC adopted a Program of Action proposed by the Congress Youth League, which
accepted the use of boycotts, strikes, stay-at-homes, civil disobedience, and non-cooperation.
They decided to move away from the old-fashioned ways of protesting, such as writing letters,
and instead deliberately break apartheid laws. They knew that the government and the police
would not be able to cope with arresting hundreds of them at once. However, they were
determined not to use violence, even if they were attacked by the police or the army. The
Defiance Campaign would involve thousands of people, but there would be no violence, looting, or
vandalism.
Defiance Campaign
This strategy was carried out in the Defiance Campaign launched by the ANC in 1952 to protest
against unjust apartheid laws. For example, new Bantu education schools were boycotted, and
African women refused to carry passes on August 9, 1956.

Freedom Charter
Another important achievement in the fight for African nationalism was the Freedom Charter, which
was delivered in an address to a large crowd in Kliptown, Soweto, in 1955. In the early 1950s, the
ANC sent out 50,000 volunteers into the townships and countryside to collect freedom demands from
the people of South Africa. After collecting these demands, a document was drawn up, which became
known as the Freedom Charter. The charter was a document that wanted to guarantee rights for all
people living in South Africa.
Some Africanist leaders accused the ANC of abandoning African nationalism because the ANC wanted
to work with white communists to end apartheid. The Africanists believed that Africans should be
totally separate from the whites and felt that the charter did not go far enough in protecting black
Africans' rights.
The main aim of African nationalism was to give black South Africans back their land and political
rights. After the Freedom Charter was published, Africanists broke away from the ANC in 1959 and
formed a new organization called the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) under the leadership of Robert
Sobukwe. The PAC wanted a separate government based only on black African rights. The ANC, on
the other hand, wanted a government based on equal rights for all.
In 1960, the ANC and PAC organized anti-pass campaigns. Both organizations encouraged their
members to march without their passes and hand themselves over to the police. The idea was to fill
up the prisons with so many people that the government and the police would be unable to cope. On
The Armed Struggle

After the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, both the ANC and the PAC realized that non-violent protests
were no longer effective against the apartheid regime. The government’s brutal response to peaceful
protests convinced many activists that armed resistance was the only way forward. This marked a
significant shift in the nature of African nationalism in South Africa.
The ANC formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning "Spear of the Nation," as its military wing.
Nelson Mandela was one of the founders of MK, and the organization carried out sabotage attacks
against government installations, aiming to avoid loss of life while damaging the apartheid
government's ability to function. The PAC also formed an armed wing called Poqo, which was more
militant and did not avoid targeting people.

Exile and International Support

As the South African government cracked down on internal resistance, many ANC leaders were
arrested or forced into exile. In 1963, Nelson Mandela and other key leaders were arrested and
sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. Despite this, the ANC continued its struggle from
abroad, gaining international support.
Many African countries, newly independent after the end of colonial rule, offered their support to the
ANC and PAC. The Organization of African Unity (OAU), formed in 1963, provided a platform for
African leaders to support liberation movements across the continent, including in South Africa. The
ANC established offices in various African capitals and received military training and supplies from
sympathetic governments.
The Role of the United Nations

The international community also began to take notice of the apartheid regime’s human rights abuses.
In 1962, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning apartheid and calling
for economic sanctions against South Africa. Although these sanctions were not enforced by all
member states, they marked the beginning of increasing international isolation for the South African
government.

Internal Resistance
In the 1970s, a new wave of internal resistance emerged, led by the Black Consciousness Movement
(BCM), which emphasized pride in black identity and the need for psychological liberation from white
oppression. Steve Biko, one of the key figures of this movement, became a symbol of resistance after
his death in police custody in 1977.
The Soweto Uprising in 1976, where thousands of black schoolchildren protested against the
imposition of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in schools, was another pivotal moment. The
government's violent response, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of students, sparked widespread
outrage and further galvanized the struggle for freedom.

The 1980s: Intensifying the Struggle

The 1980s saw a period of intense struggle, with widespread protests, strikes, and boycotts across the
country. The United Democratic Front (UDF) was formed in 1983, bringing together a broad coalition of
anti-apartheid groups, including church organizations, civic associations, and trade unions. The UDF
played a crucial role in organizing mass resistance and maintaining pressure on the apartheid
government.
The Role of Trade Unions
Trade unions became a powerful force in the struggle against apartheid, particularly with the
formation of the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) in 1985. COSATU organized
massive strikes and protests that paralyzed the economy and put additional pressure on the
apartheid government.
Negotiations and the Road to Democracy
By the late 1980s, it became clear that apartheid was unsustainable. The South African economy
was in crisis, international pressure was mounting, and internal resistance was unrelenting. In 1989,
F.W. de Klerk became president of South Africa and recognized the need for change. In 1990, he
announced the unbanning of the ANC and other liberation movements, the release of Nelson
Mandela, and the start of negotiations to end apartheid.
The negotiations were complex and fraught with tension, but eventually, an agreement was reached
to hold the country’s first democratic elections. In 1994, South Africans of all races voted in the
country’s first free and fair elections, bringing an end to apartheid and ushering in a new era of
democracy under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, who became South Africa’s first black
president.
Conclusion
The rise of African nationalism in South Africa was a long and challenging struggle that spanned
much of the 20th century. It involved a shift from moderate, non-violent protests to armed
resistance and ultimately to negotiations that ended apartheid. The movement was driven by a
deep desire for freedom, equality, and self-determination, and it played a crucial role in shaping the
history of South Africa.
The legacy of African nationalism is seen today in South Africa’s democratic institutions, the
ongoing struggle for social and economic justice, and the continuing efforts to build a nation that