1.

Primary standard substance is a highly pure compound that can be used

to prepare a standard solution. It is stable, has a high molecular weight, and
is easily obtainable. Secondary standard substance is a substance that is
not as pure as a primary standard substance, but it can be used to prepare a
standard solution by titration.
2. Titration is a technique used to determine the concentration of a solution
by reacting it with a known volume and concentration of another solution.
The different types of titration include acid-base titration, redox titration, and
complexometric titration. Acid-base titration is used to determine the
concentration of an acid or base in a solution. Redox titration is used to
determine the concentration of an oxidizing or reducing agent in a solution.
Complexometric titration is used to determine the concentration of metal
ions in a solution.
3. The law of equivalence states that in a chemical reaction, the number of
equivalents of one substance is equal to the number of equivalents of
another substance.
4. Normality is defined as the number of equivalents of a solute per liter of
solution. The normality equation is N = (W / E) x (1000 / V), where N is
normality, W is the weight of the solute in grams, E is the equivalent weight
of the solute, and V is the volume of the solution in milliliters. Normality is
used in acid-base titrations, redox titrations, and precipitation titrations.
5. Equivalent weight is the weight of a substance that can combine with or
displace one equivalent of hydrogen or any other element or radical. The
equivalent weight of an element is equal to its atomic weight divided by its
valence.
6. Equivalent weight of an acid, base, salt, oxidizing agent, or reducing agent
is the weight of the substance that can donate or accept one equivalent of
hydrogen ions. The equivalent weight of an acid is equal to its molecular
weight divided by its basicity. The equivalent weight of a base is equal to its
molecular weight divided by its acidity. The equivalent weight of a salt is
equal to its molecular weight divided by the number of replaceable hydrogen
ions. The equivalent weight of an oxidizing agent is equal to its molecular
weight divided by the number of electrons it can accept. The equivalent
weight of a reducing agent is equal to its molecular weight divided by the
number of electrons it can donate.
7. g/l stands for grams per liter. It is a unit of concentration used to express the
amount of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
8. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of a solute per liter of solution. It
is used to express the concentration of a solution.
9. Normality is defined as the number of equivalents of a solute per liter of
solution. It is used to express the concentration of a solution.
10. PPM stands for parts per million, and PPB stands for parts per billion.
They are used to express the concentration of a solute in a solution.
11. Volumetric analysis is a method of quantitative chemical analysis
that involves measuring the volume of a solution of known concentration
that is required to react completely with the substance being
 analyzed. Gravimetric analysis is a method of quantitative chemical
analysis that involves weighing a sample of the substance being analyzed
and calculating its concentration based on its mass.
12. The resulting solution of acid produced by mixing 20 ml of N/2 HCl, 60
ml of N/10 HNO3, and 150 ml of N/5 H2SO4 is not possible to
calculate without knowing the initial concentration of the acids.
13. The atomic weight of the metal can be calculated using the formula:
Atomic weight of metal = (Volume of alkali x Normality of alkali x Equivalent
weight of metal) / Weight of metal. Substituting the given values, we get:
Atomic weight of metal = (50 x 0.1 x 0.09) / 0.18 = 2.5 g/mol.
14. The limitation of Arrhenius concepts of acids and bases is that they are
limited to aqueous solutions and do not account for the behavior of acids and
bases in non-aqueous solutions.
15. Bronsted-Lowry theory defines an acid as a proton donor and a base
as a proton acceptor.
16. Conjugate acid is the species formed when a base accepts a proton,
and conjugate base is the species formed when an acid donates a proton.
17. Lewis acid is a species that can accept a pair of electrons,
and Lewis base is a species that can donate a pair of electrons. The
Lewis theory of acid-base reactions describes the reaction between a
Lewis acid and a Lewis base as the formation of a coordinate covalent
bond between them1.
18. Ionization constant of water is the product of the
concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in water. It is
represented by the symbol Kw and has a value of 1.0 x 10^-14 at
25°C 23.
19. pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is
defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in
moles per liter. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral,
values less than 7 being acidic, and values greater than 7 being
basic 45.
20. The pH of a 0.1 M solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is 13.
NaOH is a strong base, so it produces 0.1 mol/L of OH ions in solution.
Taking the negative logarithm of 0.1 gives us the pOH, which is
1. Since pH + pOH = 14, we can calculate the pH to be 13 6.
21. Solubility is the ability of a substance to dissolve in another
substance to form a homogeneous mixture. It is generally measured as
the concentration of the solute in a saturated solution, one in which no
more solute can be dissolved 7.
22. Solubility product principle states that the product of the
concentrations of the ions in a saturated solution of a sparingly soluble
salt is constant at a given temperature. This constant is called the
solubility product constant (Ksp) 8.
23. Common ion effect is the decrease in the solubility of a salt
due to the addition of a common ion. The common ion effect is based
on the principle of mass action and the solubility product principle 8.
 24. The solubility product principle is used to predict the solubility of
sparingly soluble salts in water. It is also used to determine the
concentration of ions in a saturated solution of a sparingly soluble
salt 8.
25. The common ion effect is used in precipitation reactions to
selectively precipitate one ion from a solution containing two or more
ions. By adding a common ion to the solution, the solubility of the salt
containing the common ion is decreased, and the salt is selectively
precipitated 8.
26. Buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH when
small amounts of an acid or a base are added to it. It is a mixture of a
weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate
acid 1.
27. Salt is a compound formed by the reaction of an acid and a
base. It is an ionic compound composed of a cation and an anion 1.
There are different types of salts, such as acid salts, basic salts, and
normal salts.
28. Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates of chemical
reactions and the factors that affect them 1.
29. Rate of reaction is the change in the concentration of a
reactant or a product per unit time. It is expressed as the rate of
disappearance of a reactant or the rate of appearance of a product 1.
30. Rate equation is the mathematical expression that relates the
rate of a reaction to the concentrations of the reactants raised to some
powers. It is also called the rate law 1.
31. The factors affecting the rate of a reaction are temperature,
concentration of reactants, surface area of reactants, and the presence
of a catalyst 1.
32. Order of reaction is the sum of the powers to which the
concentrations of the reactants are raised in the rate equation. It is
also called the order of the reaction 1.
33. Half-life of reaction is the time taken for the concentration of a
reactant to decrease to half of its initial value. It is a characteristic
property of a reaction 1.

34.The integrated rate equation is a mathematical expression that

relates the concentration of a reactant to time. It is obtained by
integrating the rate equation. The half-life of a reaction is the time taken
for the concentration of a reactant to decrease to half of its initial value.
The half-life for a zero-order reaction is directly proportional to the initial
concentration of the reactant, while the half-life for a first-order reaction is
independent of the initial concentration of the reactant.

35. For a first-order reaction, the time taken for a reaction to be completed
75% can be calculated using the formula: t = (ln 4) x t1/2 = (ln 4) x 100 =
69.3 seconds.
36. The Arrhenius equation is used to describe the temperature
dependence of reaction rates. It states that the rate constant of a reaction is
proportional to the frequency factor and the exponential of the activation
energy divided by the product of the gas constant and the temperature.

37. The solubility of Ag2CrO4 in water at 25°C can be calculated using the

chemical equation for the dissolution of Ag2CrO4 is: Ag2CrO4(s) ⇌ 2Ag+(aq)

solubility product constant (Ksp) and the ion concentrations. The balanced

+ CrO42-(aq). The solubility product constant is given by: Ksp =

[Ag+]^2[CrO42-] = 2.4 x 10^-12. Assuming that x is the concentration of
Ag+ and CrO42-, we can write the expression for Ksp as: x^2 = 2.4 x 10^-
12. Solving for x, we get: x = 1.55 x 10^-6 M. Therefore, the solubility of
Ag2CrO4 in water at 25°C is 1.55 x 10^-6 M.
38. The pH of a 0.005 N solution of H2SO4 can be calculated using the
formula: pH = -log[H+]. The concentration of H+ ions in the solution is given
by: [H+] = 2 x 0.005 = 0.01 N. Substituting this value in the formula for pH,
we get: pH = -log(0.01) = 2.

39. Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between heat,

work, and energy. It is concerned with the physical and chemical changes
that occur in matter due to the transfer of energy.
40. Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the
particles in a system. It is a state function and depends only on the initial
and final states of the system.

41. A state function is a property of a system that depends only on its

current state and not on how it arrived at that state.

42. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of a
system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy can be transferred
between the system and its surroundings in the form of heat or work, but the
total energy remains constant.
43. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property that describes the heat content
of a system at constant pressure. It is defined as the sum of the internal
energy of the system and the product of the pressure and volume of the
system.

44. Enthalpy of solution is the heat absorbed or released when a solute

dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.

45. Enthalpy of formation is the heat absorbed or released when one

mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements in their
standard states.
46. Enthalpy of combustion is the heat absorbed or released when one
mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen to form carbon dioxide
and water.

47. Enthalpy of reaction is the heat absorbed or released during a

chemical reaction.

48. Exothermic processes are those that release heat to the

surroundings, while endothermic processes are those that absorb heat from
the surroundings. Energy profile diagrams are used to illustrate the energy
changes that occur during a chemical reaction.

49. Hess’s law of constant heat summation states that the enthalpy
change of a reaction is independent of the pathway between the initial and
final states of the system.
50. The enthalpy of combustion of benzene can be calculated using the
formula: ΔHc = ΣΔHf(products) - ΣΔHf(reactants). Substituting the given
values, we get: ΔHc = (-285) + (-395 x 6) + (55 x 6) = -3930 kJ/mol.

51. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of the
universe always increases in a spontaneous process.

52. Standard Gibbs free energy change of reaction is the change in

Gibbs free energy that occurs when reactants in their standard states are
converted to products in their standard states. It is defined as ΔG° = ΔH° -
TΔS°, where ΔH° is the standard enthalpy change, T is the temperature in
Kelvin, and ΔS° is the standard entropy change.

53. A spontaneous process is a process that occurs without any external

input to the system. It is a process that occurs naturally under certain
conditions.

54. A reaction or process will be spontaneous if ΔG is negative, indicating

that the reaction or process releases free energy and occurs spontaneously.
A reaction or process will be non-spontaneous if ΔG is positive, indicating
that the reaction or process requires an input of free energy to occur. A
reaction or process will be at equilibrium if ΔG is zero, indicating that the
system is at equilibrium and no net change occurs.

55. The relationship between ΔG and equilibrium constant (K) is given by

the equation: ΔG° = -RT ln K, where R is the gas constant, T is the
temperature in Kelvin, and ln is the natural logarithm. If ΔG° is negative,
then K is greater than 1, indicating that the reaction is spontaneous. If ΔG° is
positive, then K is less than 1, indicating that the reaction is non-
spontaneous. If ΔG° is zero, then K is equal to 1, indicating that the system is
at equilibrium.
56. Electrode potential is the voltage of a galvanic cell built from a
standard reference electrode and another electrode to be characterized. It is
defined as the potential difference between the electrode and the electrolyte
in an electrochemical cell.

57. Standard electrode potential is the potential difference between an

electrode and the electrolyte in an electrochemical cell under standard
conditions. The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is a reference
electrode used to measure the standard electrode potential of other
electrodes. The calomel electrode is another reference electrode that is
commonly used.

58. The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is a reference electrode

used to measure the standard electrode potential of other electrodes. It
consists of a platinum electrode in contact with a solution of H+ ions at a
pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 25°C. The calomel electrode is
 another reference electrode that is commonly used. It consists of a mercury
electrode in contact with a solution of Hg2Cl2 and KCl.

59. Electrochemical series is a list of metals and non-metals arranged in

order of their standard electrode potentials. It is used to predict the
feasibility of redox reactions and to determine the relative strengths of
oxidizing and reducing agents.

60. Voltaic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy

into electrical energy. A Zn-Cu cell is a type of voltaic cell that consists of a
zinc electrode in contact with a solution of ZnSO4 and a copper electrode in
contact with a solution of CuSO4. An Ag-Cu cell is another type of voltaic
cell that consists of a silver electrode in contact with a solution of AgNO3 and
a copper electrode in contact with a solution of CuSO4.

61. Cell potential is the potential difference between the two electrodes
of an electrochemical cell. Standard cell potential is the cell potential
when the concentrations of all the species involved in the cell reaction are 1
M and the pressure of all gases is 1 atm at 25°C.
62. Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid substance with a
definite chemical composition and a crystalline structure. Ore is a naturally
occurring mineral from which a metal or an element can be extracted
profitably. An example of an ore is bauxite, which is an ore of aluminum.

63. Pyrometallurgy is the process of extracting metals from ores and

concentrates using high temperatures. It involves smelting, roasting, and
calcining operations.

64. Hydrometallurgy is the process of extracting metals from ores and

concentrates using aqueous solutions. It involves leaching, precipitation, and
solvent extraction operations.
65. Electrometallurgy is the process of extracting metals from ores and
concentrates using electricity. It involves electrorefining, electrowinning, and
electroplating operations.

66. Flux is a substance that is added to a metal or an ore to lower its

melting point and to facilitate the smelting process. An example of a basic
flux is limestone, and an example of an acidic flux is silica.
67. Alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and
a non-metal. Alloys are prepared by taking the desired elements in proper
proportion and melting them. An example of an alloy is brass, which is a
mixture of copper and zinc. Amalgam is an alloy of a metal with mercury.
The common constituents of amalgam are mercury, tin, silver, copper, and
other trace metals.
68. Gangue or matrix is the impurities like sand, rocky materials,
limestone, mica, etc. present in the ore.
69. Slag is the stony waste matter separated from metals during the
smelting or refining of ore.
70. The general principles of extraction of metal involve the following
steps:

 Crushing and pulverization

 Concentration or dressing of the ore
 Calcination or roasting of the ore
 Reduction of metal oxides to free metal

71. Concentration is the relative amount of a particular substance

contained within a solution or mixture or in a particular volume of
space. Calcination is the process of heating a substance to a high
temperature in the presence of air or oxygen. Roasting is the process of
heating a substance in the presence of air or oxygen. Smelting is the
process of extracting a metal from its ore by heating it beyond its melting
point and combining it with a reducing agent.
72. Carbon reduction is the process of reducing metal oxides to free
metal using carbon as a reducing agent.
73. Thermite is a mixture of metal powder and metal oxide that is used to
produce a high-temperature exothermic reaction. Electrochemical
reduction is the process of reducing metal ions to free metal using an
electric current.
74. Poling process is a method of refining impure metals by stirring them
with a pole of green wood. Black oxide of copper has the molecular
formula CuO and is used as a pigment in ceramics and glass. Red oxide of
copper has the molecular formula Cu2O and is used as a pigment and a
fungicide.
75. Iron is used in the production of steel, which is used in construction,
transportation, and many other applications. Zinc is used in the production
 of brass, which is used in plumbing fixtures, musical instruments, and many
other applications.
76. Copper, zinc, and iron are all found in Nepal. Copper is found in the
Himalayan region of Nepal, while zinc is found in the central and western
regions. Iron is found in the Terai region of Nepal.
77. Blue vitriol is another name for copper sulfate (CuSO4). It is a blue
crystalline solid that is used as a fungicide, herbicide, and pesticide. It is also
used in electroplating and in the production of other copper compounds.
78. The molecular formula of black oxide of copper is CuO. It is used as
a pigment in ceramics and glass. The molecular formula of red oxide of
copper is Cu2O. It is used as a pigment and a fungicide.
79. Iron is used in the production of steel, which is used in construction,
transportation, and many other applications. Zinc is used in the production
of brass, which is used in plumbing fixtures, musical instruments, and many
other applications.
80. When zinc reacts with air, it forms a layer of zinc oxide (ZnO) on its
surface. When zinc reacts with hot and concentrated NaOH, it produces
sodium zincate (Na2ZnO2) and hydrogen gas (H2). When zinc reacts with hot
and concentrated HNO3, it produces zinc nitrate (Zn(NO3)2), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), and water (H2O).
81. White vitriol is another name for zinc sulfate (ZnSO4). It is a
colorless, crystalline solid that is used in the production of rayon, as a
mordant in dyeing, and as a fertilizer.
82. When iron reacts with air, it forms a layer of iron oxide (Fe2O3)
on its surface. This process is called rusting. Rusting can be minimized
by coating the iron surface with a layer of paint, oil, or other protective
coatings.
83. Basic oxygen steelmaking is a method of primary steelmaking
in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel. Blowing oxygen
through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of the alloy and
changes it into low-carbon steel. The process is known as basic
because fluxes of burnt lime or dolomite, which are chemical bases,
are added to promote the removal of impurities and protect the lining
of the converter.
84. Open hearth process is a method of primary steelmaking in
which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel. The process
involves heating the pig iron in a furnace with a mixture of iron ore,
scrap iron, and fluxes such as limestone. The carbon in the pig iron is
oxidized and removed, and the iron is refined into steel.
85. Stainless steel is a type of steel that contains at least 10.5%
chromium, which makes it resistant to corrosion. It is used in a variety
of applications, including cutlery, cookware, surgical instruments, and
jewelry. Blister copper is a crude form of copper that is produced by
smelting copper ore in a furnace. It contains impurities such as sulfur,
iron, and other metals.
 86. Corrosion of iron is the process by which iron is gradually
destroyed by chemical reactions with its environment. Corrosion can
be minimized by coating the iron surface with a layer of paint, oil, or
other protective coatings. Another way to minimize corrosion is by
using corrosion-resistant alloys such as stainless steel.
87. Haloalkanes are organic compounds that contain halogen
atoms such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. They are used as
solvents, refrigerants, and as intermediates in the production of other
chemicals.

91. Chloroform reacts with silver powder to produce acetylene

gas and silver chloride. The reaction is as follows: 2CHCl3 + 6Ag → C2H2 +
6AgCl 1.

When chloroform is treated with concentrated nitric acid, the hydrogen

atom of chloroform is replaced by a nitro group, and nitro
chloroform (or chloropicrin) is formed. It is a liquid (b.p. - 112°C) which is
used in war as a poisonous gas 1.
When chloroform is condensed with acetone in the presence of sodium
hydroxide, chloretone is formed. It is a hypnotic (sleep-inducing drug) of
high grade 1.
When chloroform is heated with concentrated alkali and phenol at 66-
70°C, σσ-hydroxybenzaldehyde (salicylaldehyde) is formed. Traces of p-
hydroxybenzaldehyde are also formed 1.

92. Alcohol is an organic compound that contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group

attached to a carbon atom. The general formula for alcohol is R-OH, where R
is an alkyl group. Alcohols can be classified into three
types: primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols, depending on the
number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon atom bearing the hydroxyl
group. The structure of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols is shown
below:

!image
93. Alcohols can be prepared from haloalkanes, primary amines,
and esters. For example, alcohols can be prepared by reacting haloalkanes
with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) in the presence
of water. Primary amines can be converted to alcohols by reacting them with
nitrous acid (HNO2). Esters can be reduced to alcohols using a reducing
agent such as lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) 2.
94. Absolute alcohol is ethanol that contains no more than one percent
water by weight. It is also known as anhydrous alcohol. The molecular
formula of ethanol is C2H5OH 3.
95. Denatured alcohol is ethanol that has been made unfit for human
consumption by adding poisonous or foul-tasting substances to it. The
purpose of denaturing alcohol is to discourage its recreational consumption
 and avoid paying beverage taxes on alcohol that is not meant to be
consumed. Denatured alcohol is used as a solvent and as fuel for alcohol
burners and camping stoves 4.
96. Rectified spirit is a type of alcohol that is purified by repeated
distillation. It is also known as neutral spirits. Rectified spirit is used in the
production of alcoholic beverages, perfumes, and other products 5.
97. Phenol is an aromatic organic compound that contains a hydroxyl (-
OH) group attached to a benzene ring. The molecular formula of phenol is
C6H5OH. Phenol is used in the production of plastics, resins, and dyes. It is
also used as a disinfectant and an antiseptic 6.
98. Phenol can be prepared from chlorobenzene, diazonium salt,
and benzene sulphonic acid. The detailed reaction mechanisms are as
follows:
!image
99. Isomerism is the phenomenon in which two or more compounds have
the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. Isomers are
compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural
formulas 7

100. Aldehydes and phenols can be prepared from

the dehydrogenation and oxidation of alcohol. For example, primary
alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes using a mild oxidizing agent such as
pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) or Swern oxidation. Secondary alcohols can
be oxidized to ketones using a stronger oxidizing agent such as potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7). Dehydrogenation
of alcohols is another method of preparing aldehydes. In this method, a
primary alcohol is passed over metal catalysts like copper which results in
the formation of an aldehyde 1.

101. Ozonolysis is a reaction that involves the oxidative cleavage of

alkenes or alkynes using ozone (O3). The reaction allows for carbon-carbon
double or triple bonds to be replaced by double bonds with oxygen. Alkenes
can undergo ozonolysis to form alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic
 acids. The general procedure uses a solution of alkene in methanol. Ozone is
bubbled through this solution at approximately 780 Celsius. When the
solution turns blue, the alkene is consumed (the blue colour comes from the
unreacted ozone) 2.

102. When an alkene reacts with acid chloride, the product formed is
an acyl halide. The reaction proceeds via an electrophilic addition
mechanism. The carbonyl group of the acyl chloride is added to one of the
carbon atoms of the alkene, while the chloride ion is added to the other
carbon atom. When an alkene reacts with geminal dihaloalkane, the
product formed is a vicinal dihalide. The reaction proceeds via an
electrophilic addition mechanism 3.

103. Catalytic hydration of alkynes is a reaction in which an alkyne is

converted to a ketone or aldehyde by the addition of water in the presence
of a strong acid catalyst such as sulfuric acid and mercuric sulfate. The
reaction proceeds via an enol intermediate, which tautomerizes to the more
stable ketone or aldehyde 4.

Aldehydes and ketones have a wide range of applications in various

industries. Some of the uses of aldehydes are:

 Formaldehyde is used in the production of resins, plastics, and textiles.

 Acetaldehyde is used in the production of perfumes, dyes, and drugs.

 Benzaldehyde is used in the production of dyes, perfumes, and flavorings.

 Glutaraldehyde is used as a disinfectant and sterilizing agent.

 Vanillin is used as a flavoring agent in food and beverages.

Some of the uses of ketones are:

 Acetone is used as a solvent and in the production of plastics, fibers, and

drugs.

 Cyclohexanone is used in the production of nylon.

 Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) is used as a solvent and in the production of
resins, coatings, and adhesives 5.

104. 2,4-DNP reagent, Tollens’s reagent, and Fehling’s solution are

three common tests used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.
The 2,4-DNP reagent test involves adding a few drops of 2,4-
dinitrophenylhydrazine to the unknown compound. If the compound is an
aldehyde or ketone, it will react with the reagent to form an orange-red
precipitate. The Tollens’s reagent test involves adding a few drops of
Tollens’s reagent to the unknown compound. If the compound is an
aldehyde, it will reduce the Tollens’s reagent to metallic silver, which will
coat the inside of the test tube. The Fehling’s solution test involves adding
a few drops of Fehling’s solution to the unknown compound. If the compound
is an aldehyde, it will reduce the Fehling’s solution to form a brick-red
precipitate of copper(I) oxide 6.

105. Formalin is a 37% aqueous solution of formaldehyde. It is used as a

disinfectant, preservative, and in the production of resins, plastics, and
textiles. It is also used in embalming and preserving biological specimens 1.
106. Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating units called
monomers. Addition polymers are formed by the addition of unsaturated
monomers. Condensation polymers are formed by the condensation of
two different mon

88. Haloalkanes can be prepared from alkanes, alkenes, and

alcohols by reacting them with halogens such as chlorine or bromine in
the presence of a catalyst such as iron or aluminum chloride.
89. Trichloromethane (also known as chloroform) can be prepared
from ethanol by reacting it with sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) in the
presence of a base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The reaction is
as follows: CH3CH2OH + 3NaClO → CHCl3 + 3NaCl + 2H2O.
90. Trichloromethane (also known as chloroform) can be prepared
from acetone by reacting it with sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) in the
presence of a base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The reaction is
as follows: CH3COCH3 + 3NaClO → CHCl3 + 3NaCl + 2H2O.

106. Polymer is a large molecule made up of repeating units called

monomers. Polymers can be classified into two types: addition
polymers and condensation polymers. Addition polymers are formed by
the addition of unsaturated monomers. Condensation polymers are formed
by the condensation of two different bi-functional or tri-functional monomers.
107. Elastomers are polymers that exhibit rubber-like properties
characterized by their ability to stretch and return to their original shape
after deformation. Fibers are elongated structures with high tensile strength
and stiffness.

108. Natural polymers are derived from natural sources such as plants,
animals, or microorganisms. Examples of natural polymers include silk, wool,
DNA, cellulose, and proteins. Synthetic polymers are derived from
petroleum oil and are made by scientists and engineers. Examples of
synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Teflon,
polystyrene, and Bakelite.

109. Nylon is a synthetic polymer that is used in textiles and

fabrics. Polyethylene is a synthetic polymer that is used in a variety of
applications such as packaging, labelling, stationery, textiles, plastics, and in
reusable containers. Teflon is a synthetic polymer that is used in non-stick
pans. Polystyrene is a synthetic polymer that is used in packaging,
insulation, and disposable cutlery. Bakelite is a synthetic polymer that is
used in electrical switches, handles, and other applications.
110. Drugs are substances that alter the way the body functions. They can
be classified into two types: natural drugs and synthetic drugs. Natural
drugs are derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, or
microorganisms. Examples of natural drugs include opium, mushrooms, and
marijuana. Synthetic drugs are created using man-made chemicals, not
natural ingredients. Examples of synthetic drugs include cocaine, ecstasy,
fentanyl, and bath salts.

111. Antipyretics are drugs that reduce fever. Analgesics are drugs that
relieve pain. Tranquilizers are drugs that reduce anxiety and
tension. Antipyretics and analgesics are drugs that reduce fever and
relieve pain. Antiseptics are substances that prevent the growth of
microorganisms.
112. Habit-forming drugs are drugs that create a psychological or
physical dependence in the user. Examples of habit-forming drugs include
opioids, benzodiazepines, and amphetamines.

113. Drug addiction is a chronic disease characterized by compulsive drug

seeking and use despite the harmful consequences. It is often accompanied
by physical and psychological dependence on the drug.
114. Pesticides are substances that are used to control or kill pests such
as insects, rodents, and weeds. There are several types of pesticides,
including insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides.

115. Radioactivity is the property of certain elements to spontaneously

emit radiation in the form of particles or waves. The unit of radioactivity is
the becquerel (Bq), which is defined as one disintegration per
second. Another unit of radioactivity is the curie (Ci), which is defined as the
amount of radioactive material that undergoes 3.7 x 10^10 disintegrations
per second

115. Radioactivity is the property of certain types of matter to spontaneously

emit energy and subatomic particles. It is an attribute of individual atomic nuclei.
An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or decay, into a more stable
configuration but will do so only in a few specific ways by emitting certain particles
or certain forms of electromagnetic energy. The rate at which a radioactive element
decays is expressed in terms of its half-life; i.e., the time required for one-half of
any given quantity of the isotope to decay. The unit of radioactivity is Becquerel
(Bq), which is defined as one decay per second 12.

116. Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of naturally occurring

isotopes, while artificial radioactivity is the induced radioactivity of isotopes that
are not naturally radioactive. Artificial radioactivity can be produced by bombarding
stable isotopes with particles such as neutrons, protons, or alpha particles 1.

117. A nuclear reaction is a process in which the nucleus of an atom is altered

by being bombarded with another particle, such as a neutron or proton. There are
two types of nuclear reactions: fission and fusion. In fission, a heavy nucleus is
split into two lighter nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. In fusion, two light
nuclei are combined to form a heavier nucleus, releasing an even larger amount of
energy 1.
118. Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom is split into two
smaller nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. This process is used in nuclear
power plants to generate electricity. Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light
nuclei are combined to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a large amount of
energy. This process is the energy source of the sun and other stars 1.

119. Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to generate

electricity. Nuclear weapons are explosive devices that derive their destructive
force from nuclear reactions. Both nuclear power and nuclear weapons rely on the
release of energy from nuclear reactions 1.

120. Industrial use of radioactivity: Radioisotopes are used in a variety of

industrial applications, including radiography, gauging, and sterilization. For
example, radioisotopes can be used to detect flaws in metal castings, measure the
thickness of materials, and sterilize medical equipment 1. Medical use of
radioactivity: Radioisotopes are used in medicine for both diagnostic and
therapeutic purposes. For example, radioisotopes can be used to diagnose and treat
cancer, as well as to study the structure and function of organs in the body 1.
121. Carbon dating is a method used to determine the age of an object
containing organic material by measuring the amount of carbon-14 it contains.
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon that is produced in the atmosphere and
absorbed by plants and animals. When an organism dies, the carbon-14 in its body
begins to decay, and the amount of carbon-14 decreases over time. By measuring
the amount of carbon-14 remaining in a sample, scientists can determine how long
ago the organism died. Exposure to nuclear radiation can cause a variety of harmful
effects, including cancer, genetic mutations, and radiation sickness 1.

122. Dehydrohalogenation is a chemical reaction in which a hydrogen halide is

eliminated from an organic molecule, typically resulting in the formation of an
alkene. This reaction is commonly used in organic synthesis to create carbon-
carbon double bonds 1.

123. Saytzeff’s rule states that in a dehydrohalogenation reaction, the most

substituted alkene is the major product. This is because the more substituted
alkene is more stable than the less substituted alkene due to the greater number of
electron-donating alkyl groups attached to the double bond 1.
124. Reduction reactions are chemical reactions in which electrons are gained,
while Wurtz reaction is a chemical reaction in which two alkyl halides are reacted
with sodium metal to form a hydrocarbon 1.

125. Normality factor is a term used in analytical chemistry to describe the

concentration of a solution. It is defined as the number of equivalents of a solute
per liter of solution. The normality factor is used to calculate the amount of a
substance required to react with a given amount of another substance 1.