s44147-023-00333-2

Dakka et al.
Journal of Engineering
Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:7
https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-023-00333-2 and Applied Science
RESEARCH Open Access
A 5‑kW unidirectional wireless power

transfer EV charger with a novel multi‑level PFC
boost converter on front‑end side
Obulesu Dakka1, Sridhar Patthi2, J. V. G. Rama Rao3 and Parveen Kumar4*
*Correspondence:
parveenrao423@gmail.com Abstract
1
Department of Electrical The greatest advantages of wireless power transfer (WPT) are its absence of severe
Engineering, CVR environmental hazards, its portability, and its independence from other factors. The
College of Engineering, wireless charging system for electric vehicles has a serious problem with the amount
Ibrahimpatnam 501510, India
2
Department of Electrical of misalignment it can tolerate. This study explores the usage of a novel multi-level
Engineering, Institute boost power factor correction (PFC) rectifier with less switch count to improve
of Aeronautical Engineering, the efficiency of power conversion of a 5-kW wireless electric vehicle (EV) charger.
Hyderabad 500043, India
3
Department of Electrical Especially in the context of wireless charging, which provides convenience and flex-
Engineering, BVC Institute ibility, there is a pressing need for efficient and dependable charging infrastructure
of Technology and Science, to keep up with the rising demand for electric vehicles. In contrast to wired EV charg-
Amalapuram 533221, India
4
Department of Electrical ers, wireless chargers often have poorer power conversion efficiency because of losses
Engineering, Model Institute in power semiconductor devices. An innovative multi-level boost PFC rectifier design
of Engineering and Technology is offered as a solution to this problem since it uses fewer switches while retaining
(MIET), Jammu 181122, India
high-performance levels. The suggested rectifier achieves much higher power conver-
sion efficiency. In addition, power factor correction capabilities are improved, making
it comply with global rules. Simpler, cheaper, and more dependable rectifiers improve
the whole system.
Keywords: Wireless charge, Receiver coils, Multi-level boost PFC rectifier, Power factor
correction, Total harmonic distortion
Introduction
The advent of widespread electricity generation has resulted in a new era of social and
economic development and environmental development. As the focus moves from
the energy transition to a carbon-neutral emission economy, electrification is pro-
jected to increase in the transportation sector. In order to mitigate climate change,
greenhouse gas emissions, and poor air quality, electrifying transportation is seen as a
promising alternative to traditional fuel sources. When compared to cars powered by
traditional internal combustion engines (ICE), EVs have several advantages, including
zero emissions, high reliability, high efficiency, and little maintenance. More than 10
million EVs were on the road in 2020, and market research predicts that number will
grow to over one billion EVs by 2050 [1]. All of these things have an effect on the auto
© The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits
use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third
party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the mate-
rial. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdo-
main/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.
Dakka et al. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:7 Page 2 of 20
Fig. 1 Wireless EV power transmission system
Fig. 2 Block diagram of wireless power transfer
industry and are crucial to the study and improvement of electric vehicle (EV) tech-
nology. In recent years, wireless power transfer, also known as WPT, has been gaining
a lot of attention [2, 3].
It finds extensive use in several fields, including the transportation sector [4–6], the
consumer electronics industry [7, 8], the home and kitchen and the transportation of
goods [9, 10]. Without physical touch between the sending and receiving sides, energy
is transferred through the coupled magnetic field in a WPT system [9]. In the present
day, electric vehicles may be charged using either an active wired power transfer sys-
tem or a wireless power transfer system (WPT) [10]. This research explores a specific
kind of WPT device known as active power wireless power transfer. Although numer-
ous methods exist for WPT, the most developed ones use induction [11]. This kind of
charger relies on an 80–90 kHz magnetic field running between two air-core linked
coils. Wireless chargers power converters vary from their wired counterparts in compo-
sition, architecture, and control due to their operating frequency. The typical wireless EV
system is depicted in Fig. 1.
In [12], the various types of power converters used in two-way wired as well as wire-
less chargers are discussed. Regarding management, a comparison is provided in [13]
between two primary approaches to managing the flow of power in bidirectional wireless
chargers. The onboard charging (OBC) system should be more efficient, affordable, and
grid friendly, as well as have a higher-power density, higher-energy utilization, a smaller
form factor, less weight, and higher reliability [14]. Based on the number of steps used
to process power, the typical OBC topologies may be roughly divided into two classes:
two-stage and single-stage chargers [15]. As shown in Fig. 2, the typical two-stage set-
ups include a front-end AC-DC converter consisting of a diode bridge rectifier with
power factor correction (PFC) and an isolated DC-DC converter, as described in [16].
In order to regulate the output voltage, two-stage chargers utilize a DC-DC converter at
the conclusion of the charging process [17] and an AC-DC converter at the beginning
of the charging process for active power factor correction (PFC). It is recommended to
use a two-stage EV charger that combines a modified buck-boost converter and a half-
bridge LLC converter [18]. As a practical front-end converter for OBC, a single-phase
switched-mode bridge-less AC-DC buck-boost-derived converter is presented [19]. The
suggested converter has fewer moving parts and fewer sensors, which helps keep the
charger cost down. To improve PFC converters, which do not need extra sample devices,
a system for online capacitance monitoring was presented [20]. The converters on the
back end have no effect on the proposed design.
The ripples in the steady state are small, but the transient duration is excessively
lengthy [21]. debuted the FR series of bridgeless PFC rectifiers, which consists of two
new single-phase buck-boost designs. Both suggested rectifiers use just two semicon-
ductors and a single magnetic core to power two inductors. In this study, we present a
PFC rectifier design that makes use of fewer active switches but yet achieves multi-level
PFC boost power factor correction. The smaller number of switches also helps to reduce
the overall footprint of the manufacturing box. The switches in the rectifier are subjected
to low-voltage strains and work at low switching frequencies, making the device ideal for
medium-voltage high-power applications. This rectifier’s ability to produce Dc voltage
and current with minimal harmonic content is a major benefit. This attribute is greatly
sought after in power electronic systems due to its beneficial effects on enhancing power
quality and decreasing distortion. The multi-level converter design used in the rectifier
makes these advantages possible.
In PFC converter design voltage stability is an important parameter to manage the
power from vehicle to grid and grid to vehicle [22]. presents an improved version of the
particle swarm optimization technique for online power system stabilizer tuning. The
program uses an innovative objective function that combines angular velocity deviation
and damping time measurements. Simulations show greater oscillation mitigation under
varied power system load circumstances as compared to genetic and bacterial foraging
algorithms. The effectiveness of STATCOM, TCSC, SSSC, and UPFC in improving the
static voltage stability of the IEEE 14-bus test system is evaluated in [23].
The study of the continuation power flow and the saddle node bifurcation dem-
onstrates the way their effects appear at the highest loading point. The holistic power
transfer in [24] presents a probabilistic technique to analyze distant wind power supply
dependability to the main grid, including transmission restrictions. It calculates trans-
mission capacity for system dependability and cost-effectiveness using the mean capacity
outage probability table (mean-COPT) paradigm, which considers fuel offset and envi-
ronmental advantages. The illustrations incorporate real wind farm data, which helps
electricity system planners and regulators. In [25], research optimizes microgrid con-
troller settings for islanding mode using particle swarm optimization (PSO) to minimize
current and voltage controller faults and simulate stability. To improve voltage stability,
[26] deliberately places wind generating at power system weak areas. It emphasizes static
VAR compensators with maximum loading factor and megawatt margin indicators. Sim-
ulations using the IEEE 14-bus test system support the method.
The optimization of reactive power compensation in the IEEE 30-bus system for volt-
age stability and cost savings is presented in [27]. The Modified Artificial Bee Colony sur-
passes Artificial Bee Colony, PSO, and GA in losses, reactive power costs, voltage profile,
and system stability. An optimal fuzzy-based controller for autonomous generation
regulation in a wind farm-connected two-area hydrothermal power system approaches
modified cuckoo search optimization controller settings and membership functions. The
suggested heuristic goal function emphasises maximum frequency drift and oscillations
fading time to minimize frequency deviation and transmission power oscillations. The
wind farm’s load changes and contribution to fulfilling electrical demand minimize fre-
quency oscillations in both locations, improving power system stability in simulations
[28].
The high switching frequency of multi-level converters is addressed in this study by
using a four-carrier pulse-width modulation (PWM) approach. Because of its useful-
ness in managing power electronic converters, this method has found widespread use
in industry. A simple cascaded controller is used to provide the PWM modulation refer-
ence signal. For the novel PFC boost rectifier converter, this controller’s voltage and cur-
rent loops coordinate to regulate the DC voltage at the output, maintain phase between
the input voltage and current, and produce a voltage waveform with five levels. The
study includes extensive test results that demonstrate the effective operation of the sug-
gested rectifier.
However, the arrangement itself may not be suitable for use in industrial applications.
So, that multi-level PFC converter is connected to wireless power transfer converter
which provides isolation. Overall, this novel PFC-based wireless converter excels in effi-
ciency indices, which are crucial to EV charger performance. It offers more efficiency
than other similar-level PFC-based EV chargers due to careful design and control strat-
egy. This converter outperforms previous works in terms of power factor, component
count, and efficiency, making it a desirable choice for eco-friendly EV battery charging.
The output DC voltage, power factor, harmonic current, and operating frequency of
the rectifier were all confirmed to be low ripple by testing. The suggested multi-carrier
PWM method and the straightforward controller both enhance the rectifier usefulness
and efficiency. Using the LCC network and the proposed PFC boost converter describes
the two-stage, unidirectional wireless transmission of power using the MATLAB/Sim-
ulink simulation environment. The remaining part of the article covers the results of the
simulation.
Mathematical model of the wireless charging system

Wireless charging is becoming more common on highways since it extends the range
of electric cars (EVs), especially pure and hybrid EVs. However, the wireless charge
method is particularly useful for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) since it offers a method
for recharging the vehicle even while it is in motion. This makes the wireless recharge
method an attractive option for BEV manufacturers. There is a basic essence that can be
found inside the arena of electric vehicles (EVs), which gives these cars their own exist-
ence and gives them life. At its center is the mysterious component that is often referred
to as the battery.
As shown in Fig. 3, it stands a dominant DC voltage source, also prominently fea-

turing the design of this normal entity. This DC voltage source is enveloped by a bal-
anced number of series variable resistances. This ensemble with numerous parameters,
each delicately tangled in Eq. (1) [29–33], an enchantment that unveils the charge/dis-
charge voltage characteristics of the enigmatic lithium-ion battery. This enigmatic equa-
tion manages to encapsulate the very essence of this component, thereby illuminating
its enigmas and setting the stage for a captivating exploration of battery voltage (Ubatt).
The internal resistance of battery (Rbatt) influences the battery charging and discharging
(Ubatt-charge and Ubatt-discharge) phenomena.

Ubatt−ch arg e = EbI − Rbatt Ibatt
Ubatt =
Ubatt−dich arg e = EbI − Rbatt Ibatt (1)
q(t) is the time-integral of the battery’s remaining capacity, and it is expressed as

follows:
tbatt
q(t) = q(0) − (ηbatt Ibatt )dt (2)

0
Here, tbatt is the discharge time and battery current (Ibatt) and ηbatt is battery perfor-
mance are primary elements considered in wireless charging system. The SoC of the sys-
tem at qmax can be represented as follows:
Fig. 3 Li-ion battery equivalent circuit


q(t)
SoC(%) = × 100 (3)
qmax
The internal components of battery are determining its discharge and charge voltage
(EbI), which can be expressed as follows:
 � � � �
 E0 − Kb q ild ∗ −Kb q it + Ae−B.it
EbI = � q−it � � q−it � (4)
 E0 − Kb q ild ∗ +Kb q it + Ae−B.it
q−it q−it
Here, the constant voltage is denoted by E0, the polarization resistance by Kb, ild* rep-
resents the low-frequency current dynamics, the extracted capacity by it, the exponential
voltage by A, and the exponential capacity by B. The next subsections elaborate on the
mathematical models of dynamic systems. Detailed explanations of each model are pro-
vided, including information on its salient features and an appropriate mathematical model.
Mathematical formulation of a statistic model

A novel multi-level PFC EV wireless charging system transforms electric vehicle charging.
Its innovative converter architecture, intelligent control algorithms, and wireless charging
provide ease, power transfer efficiency, and power grid integration. This technology enables
a sustainable future where electric mobility replaces fossil fuels and cleans the environment
for future generations. Initially, the load of a PFC circuit is described, which in this case is
the wireless charging system for EVs. The state space model analysis is using a boost con-
verter-based power factor correction (PFC) circuit [34–36].
      1 
0 � �
dx1 0 0 0 x
 dt
dx2   0 0 − 1  1   L1 1  U1
 dt  = C x2 + 0 C U2 (5)
dx3 0 L12 − LR2 x3 0 0
dt
      
dx1 0 − L12 0 1 � �
 dt
  1 
x1 L1 0 U1
 dx2 1 
 =  C 0 −C  2 + 0 C
x   1  (6)
dt U2
dx3
dt
0 L12 − LR2 x3 0 0
Mathematical formulation of dynamic model

By excluding consideration of the magnetic losses and the resistance of the coil, a simplified
version of the apparent power that is transferred from Lp to Ls can be determined [37].
SPS = −UPS IS∗ = −jωMiP (7)
The apparent power that is transferred from LS to LP can be determined as following

Eq. (8).
SSP = −USP IP∗ = −jωMiS iP∗ (8)
where the true power transfer can be presented as follows:
PPS = ωMIP IS sin ϕPS (9)
Dynamic power exchanges occur between the two coils. Consider for the sake of this
study that a power transfer from Lp to Ls is taking place. When φPS=π/2, the power that
is transferred from Lp to Ls reaches its highest level. The maximum efficiency obtained
using dynamic charged system is as follows:
k 2 Q1 Q2
ηmax = 2 (10)
1 + 1 + k 2 Q1 Q2
Proposed multi‑level PFC boost converter rectifier

The suggested converter setup includes a number of crucial elements. First, the input
power is provided by an AC source to the PFC rectifier converter which is fed to the
roadside LCC network through a high-frequency inverter which is illustrated in Fig. 4.
It is crucial to remember that the LCC network does not move when the power is being
transferred. The vehicle’s end of the LCC network consists of a battery and a regulated
rectifier converter, which manages the flow of power between the network and the bat-
tery. The rectifier that is included in the converter that is located on the source side of
the system makes it easier for electricity to be transferred from the grid to the battery.
After that, the high-frequency converter transforms the DC electricity into AC which
operates at a high frequency. Then, the vehicle’s side converter, which doubles as a recti-
fier, receives power wirelessly from the parked charging station and transfers it to the
battery.
A power factor correction (PFC) rectifier with multi-levels of enhancement has
been proposed as shown in Fig. 5. This rectifier uses three active switches and six
diodes, which is a modest tweak from an architecture that was comparable but
Fig. 4 Proposed multi-level PFC boost converter rectifier

Fig. 5 A two-stage unidirectional EV wireless charging converter
Table 1 Multi-level PFC boost rectifier parameters

System parameters
Voltage of AC grid 120-V RMS

Frequency of AC grid 60 Hz
Interface inductor 2.5 mH
DC voltages ( Vdc) 200 V
DC capacitor (C1 & C2) 1000 μF
Switching frequency 5 kHz
needed four switches. Because of this improvement, there will be less of a need for
extra gate drivers, which will save space on the assembled board. Different paths for
current are created in proposed controller using midpoint of DC capacitors.
It has five levels of output voltages having ±Vdc, ±Vdc/2 and 0. When the current is
in the positive direction, engaging switch S1 will cause diode D2 to conduct. This will
result in a voltage of +Vdc being present at Vab, and the capacitors C1 and C2 will be
charged. When switches S 1 and S3 are both on at the same time, current flows with
low impedance via capacitor 1 (C1) and the bidirectional switch (S3), charging the
top capacitor and bringing Vab up to +Vdc/2. To get to ground zero, you must use
switches S1 and S 2 to generate a short circuit between locations a and b. Diode D1
plays a significant part in determining the necessary current route when the current
is flowing in the opposite direction, which is negative. When the switch S3 is acti-
vated, all of the current flows through the lower capacitor C2, charging it, while the
other conductor, D1, is in operation. This results in a negative voltage level of −Vdc/2
being produced at the input of the rectifier.
Last but not least, when the current is flowing in the opposite direction, engaging
switch S2 causes diode D1 to conduct, which ultimately results in Vab being equal to
−Vdc. Harmonics are introduced into the current waveform by the voltage waveform
of the converter when it is used in an application that is linked to the grid. By using
specified parameters in Table 1, the suggested rectifier presents a voltage wave-
form at the input that has five different levels, which results in decreased harmonic
content. As a direct result, grid current drops immediately, and smaller filters may
be used in comparison to the standard two-level or two-stage rectifiers. Reduced
manufacturing costs are a direct result of the lower size of the passive components,
which also contributes significantly to the reduced weight of the converter.
Cascaded inner loop control design

The grid current waveform can be shaped using a method known as hysteresis current
control. This method creates a waveform that is similar to a sine wave. On the other
hand, it may result in difficulties associated with switching.
As a result of these possible problems, which can involve greater switching losses,
increased electromagnetic interference, and the possibility of grid voltage distortion, the
design and execution of the control system will need careful attention and the devel-
opment of techniques to mitigate the effects of these problems. A controller with a
straightforward layout has been conceptualized with the goal of making this rectifier
topology appealing and suitable for use in industrial settings. The controller is made up
of two loops that are cascaded one within the other. The outer loop acts as a voltage
regulator, while the inner loop is in charge of controlling the amount of current. Figure 6
displays all of the factors that were considered such as line inductor (L) and parasitic
internal inductance (R), α is the rectifier duty cycle, grid current (Is), and grid voltage
(vs), and output DC voltage (vs) affects the inner loop control. The mathematical form of
inner loop control is expressed as follows:
dis
L = vs − R × is − Vab = vs − R × is − αVdc (11)
dt
By rearranging Eq. (11), the final value of inner loop current controller (H(s)) can be
represented as follows:
is −Vdc
H (s) = = (12)
α LS + R
Cascaded outer loop control design

In continuation, an extra loop, which was formerly known as the outer loop, has to
be introduced into the controller so that precise control may be exerted over the DC
voltage that is output. It is very necessary to investigate the equations that are associ-
ated with the DC side of the rectifier in order to build the system model for this outer
loop. For further information on how to calculate the open-loop transfer function
(HI(s)) of the whole system, see Fig. 6. Inner loop transfer functions are determined
Fig. 6 Cascaded design control block diagram applied on multi-level rectifier

by multiplying the plant model by the compensator H(s), which is a constant. Detailed
computations are shown by using a PI controller in the inner loop, although the kic
has been kept deliberately modest so that the analysis can start with more speed. The
constant average value for the duty cycle, indicated by the letter k, is becoming closer
and closer to the value of unity (getting closer to 1).
The variable ic stands for the DC capacitor current, and one C capacitor is equal to
the parallel combination of two C1 capacitors and two C1 & C2 capacitors. It is pos-
sible to get the transfer function for the outer loop system by first doing small signal
modelling on Eq. (13) and then translating it into the s-plane. This will provide the
desired result.

 if = ic + iL
ic = if − iL (13)
 dVdc CVdc
C dt = kis − RL
The output current control loop (HI (S)) is expressed as follows:
Vdc kRL
H I (s) = = (14)
is RL CS + 1
Multicarrier PWM technique

For high-power as well as industrial uses that need a set switching frequency at a low
rate, the PWM technique should be used to make the necessary pulses for switching
[38–41]. Other switching methods, like hysteresis, have an adaptable switching fre-
quency that makes annoying noises. As shown in Fig. 7, the four carriers (Cr1, Cr2, Cr3,
and Cr4) are moved vertically to modify the calculated reference signal (Uref). Each of
the carriers is responsible for making pulses that match the voltage level as well as
switching states shown by logical blocks. The suggested method makes sure that the
switching frequency of the multi-level PFC boost rectifier converter is low and set.
This is done to get low switching losses while maintaining excellent efficiency com-
pared to other schemes.
Fig. 7 The low and constant switching frequency applications of the proposed multicarrier PWM approach
Results and discussion

The unidirectional converter for wireless power transfer (WPT) involving the pro-
posed multi-level PFC boost rectifier has been tested in MATLAB 2023a employing the
parameters described in Table 1, and the outcomes at different places are shown. The
unidirectional converter consists of a multi-level boost PFC rectifier with the DC link.
The rectifier receives electricity from the grid at 230 V and 50 Hz, and its operation is
synchronized with is, assuring a unity power factor.
In Fig. 8, that diagram depicts a low-harmonic, multi-level voltage waveform at the
PFC rectifier’s input. A high-frequency (HF) inverter is connected to the DC link, and
this HF inverter converts DC to AC and fed to transformer via LCC network. LCC net-
work eliminates the ripple in voltage and current, which is then sent to a high-frequency
transformer that acts as the wireless power transfer.
The secondary transformer is incorporated into the car, and an LCC resonance net-
work is used to smooth out the voltage and current noise. The output signal of the LCC
resonant network is sent to H bridge-controlled rectifier, which charges the EV battery.
Figure 9 shows the patterns of the source’s voltage and current, which shows that the
source’s power factor is approximately one. In this case, the source is a single-phase AC
supply with 230-V power and 50-Hz frequency. About 20 A of current is taken from
the source. In Fig. 10, the voltage and current of the DC link are shown as waveforms.
The DC link is connected to the HF inverter which is fed to roadside winding where the
power transfer takes place. Here, the power is transferred to the vehicle side winding
which is fed to the vehicle rectifier which is fed to the battery.
These waveforms provide an understanding of the characteristics of the source and the
DC link in the AC-DC bidirectional wireless power transfer system. They offer insights
into the voltage and current levels involved in the conversion process, aiding in the
Fig. 8 Multi-level voltage at PFC rectifier input side

Fig. 9 Voltage and current waveforms of the source
Fig. 10 DC link voltage and DC link current
assessment of system performance, efficiency, and power transfer capabilities. Figure 11

shows the voltage and current on the high-frequency inverter side, and Fig. 12 shows
the voltage and current on the vehicle side of the LCC. The DC link sends its output to
the high-frequency inverter, which changes the DC into high-frequency AC. The voltage
and current of high-frequency AC are 410 V and 13 A, respectively. The high-frequency
AC from the wireless transformer is sent to the LCC network in the vehicle, where the
waves are smoothed out.
The high-frequency AC is then turned into DC by the vehicle side rectifier and used to
charge the E-vehicle’s battery. Figure 13 shows that the current for charging the battery
is 13 A, and that the voltage for fast charging is about 400 V.
Fig. 11 Inverter side voltage and current waveforms
Fig. 12 Voltage and current waveforms on vehicle side

Fig. 13 Battery voltage and current
Experimental
To validate the simulation results, an experiment is done with hardware setup of
the wireless power transfer with a multi-level PFC boost rectifier converter which
was built using SiC MOSFETs and quick recovery SiC diodes which are depicted in
Fig. 14. On an OPAL-RT, the proposed controller as well as modulation method has
been used to make pulses for the switches. On the grid side, the voltage and current
patterns show that the rectifier is working with a unity power factor. The suggested
approach has made it so that the AC current going into the PFC converter has fewer
harmonics which is sent to HF inverter.
HF inverter gives the high-frequency AC from the DC link voltage and then sends
it to transformer which is again fed to the LCC network to smooth out any waves
before the H bridge turns it back into DC. Figure 15 shows the patterns of the experi-
ment’s outputs that went with them. Table 2 contrasts the proposed approach with
existed topologies, signifying its higher performance along many critical metrics. The
proposed technique is effective because it improves charger capability in many ways,
including number of levels, active switches, wireless capability, efficiency, power fac-
tor, and voltage stress on switches.
In order to convert the voltage from the source into usable current, PFC boost rec-
tifier system needs a voltage source. The potential for current flow is supplied by the
source voltage. Current in this configuration is the flow of charge through the PFC
boost rectifier circuit, which is driven by the source voltage. To enhance power fac-
tor and efficiency, the input alternating current (AC) is rectified into direct current
(DC) by the rectifier. Figure 15 a represents the reactive power and maximizes energy
utilization to guarantee a steady and efficient flow of electricity to the linked load.
The DC link voltage seen in Fig. 15 b in a PFC boost rectifier is the stabilized voltage
across the DC capacitor that rounds off the rectifier’s output. It keeps the voltage to
the devices farther down the line stable. The DC capacitor acts as a buffer between
Fig. 14 Experiment setup
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 15 Experimental validation of proposed multi-level PFC boost converter. a Source voltage and current,
b DC link voltage, c DC link current, and d multi-level input voltage of proposed PFC boost rectifier
Table 2 The novelty of proposed work is compared with standard topologies

Parameters [42] [43] [44] [45] [46, 47] Proposed
Level 5 5 7 3 3 5
Active switches 6 10 10 4 8 3
Diodes - - - 4 2 6
Inductors 1 1 1 1 1 1
Capacitors 2 3 3 2 4 2
Wireless capability No No No No No Yes
Voltage stress Less Less Less Less Less Very less
Efficiency 94.33% 97.75% - 90.8% 99.18% 97.2%
Power factor Unity Unity Unity Unity 0.99 Unity
the input and the output, smoothing out voltage and current spikes and boosting the
power factor.
This is represented by the DC link current as shown in Fig. 15 c. PFC boost rectifi-
ers rely on a stable DC link voltage and current for optimal power conversion, lower
harmonics, and better system performance. The proposed PFC boost rectifier employs a
multi-level input voltage approach. This design strategy involves varying the input volt-
age levels to the boost converter in a controlled manner. By adjusting these levels from
Fig. 15 d, the rectifier aims to achieve improved power factor correction (PFC) perfor-
mance. This multi-level input voltage technique helps optimize the energy conversion
process by minimizing harmonic distortions and enhancing overall power efficiency,
contributing to better utilization of input power while meeting PFC requirements.
Conclusions
This research presents modelling and experimental validation of a novel multi-level PFC
converter that has reduced switch count for unidirectional wireless power transmission
for charging the batteries of electric vehicles. To maintain DC voltage regulation and
input AC voltage and current unity power factor mode, a cascaded PI controller was
developed. In addition, by using a modest inductive filter on the input line and the built
controller, we were able to generate a low-harmonic AC current waveform. The value of
the voltage THD is also lowered to 1.57%. In this study, we employ a multicarrier modu-
lation strategy and use pulse-width modulation to lower the switching frequency, which
is a major problem with switching rectifiers. The ripple in the DC is controlled by the
DC-link capacitor. Power may thus efficiently flow from the grid to EVs. With an input
voltage of 230 V, an output battery voltage of 400 V, and a resonance frequency of 25
kHz, the minimum power from vehicle to grid is 5 kW. Because of the high frequency,
the inductor and capacitor used to store energy may be made smaller and lighter. A
97.2% efficiency was measured for the grid-to-battery converter in the car.
Nomenclature
Ubatt Battery voltage (V)
Ubatt-charge Battery voltage during charging (V)
Ubatt-discharge Battery voltage during discharging (V)
EbI Charge and discharge voltage (V)
q(t) Battery’s remaining capacity (Wh)

q(0) Initial battery capacity (Wh)
ηbat Battery performance
Ibatt Battery current (A)
Rbatt Internal resistance of battery (Ω)
qmax Maximum battery capacity
E0 Battery constant voltage (V)
Kb Polarization resistance (Ω)
tbatt Battery discharge time (s)
ild* Low frequency current dynamics
A Exponential voltage (V)
B Exponential capacity (Wh)
x1, x2, x3 State vectors
dx1/dt, dx2/dt, dx3/dt Rate of change of state vectors
R, L1, L2, C Resistance, inductance, and capacitance of PFC converter
U1, U2 Output vector
SPS Apparent power exchanged from primary to secondary
winding (VA)
UPS Coil voltage from primary to secondary winding (V)
IS* Dynamic secondary side coil current (A)
ω Angular velocity (rad)
M Mutual inductance (H)
iP Primary coil side current (A)
SSP Apparent power exchanged from primary to secondary
winding (VA)
USP Coil voltage from secondary to primary winding (V)
IP* Dynamic primary side coil current (A)
Is Secondary coil current (A)
PPS Active power from primary to secondary coil side (W)
φPS Phase angle between primary and secondary side (rad)
ηmax Maximum performance of PFC converter
Q1, Q2 Quality factors
k Coupling factor
S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 MOSFET switches
S6, S7, S8, S9, S10, S11.
D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6 Diodes in PFC converter
C1, C2 Capacitances in PFC converter (F)
Cdc DC link capacitor (F)
L Line inductor (H)
LP1, LS1 Primary and secondary coil inductances (H)
CP1, CS1 Primary and secondary side capacitances (F)
CPri, Csec Capacitance across primary and secondary winding (F)
H(s) Transfer function for inner loop current controller
HI(s) Transfer function for outer loop current controller
Vs Grid voltage (V)
is Grid current (A)

Vdc DC voltage output (V)
Vdc* Dynamic DC voltage output (V)
R Parasitic internal resistance (Ω)
α Rectifier duty cycle
Uref Reference signal
Cr1, Cr2, Cr3, Cr4 Carrier signals
Abbreviations
WPT Wireless power transfer
PFC Power factor correction
EV Electric vehicle
ICE Internal combustion engines
OBC Onboard charging
PWM Pulse-width modulation
BEV Battery electric vehicle
HF High frequency
Acknowledgements
Not applicable
Authors’ contributions
OD manuscript preparation and writing, SP results editing, JVGRR data collection and manuscript editing, PK manuscript
sketch work and software simulation work.
Funding
There is no funding body involved in this article.
Availability of data and materials

Figures: Microsoft Visio 2007, Microsoft Excel, tables: Microsoft Word, and simulation software: MATLAB/Simulink.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
We declare that this manuscript is original, has not been published before, and is not currently being considered for pub-
lication elsewhere, and there are no conflicts of interest for this publication. As the corresponding author, we confirm
that the manuscript has been read and approved for submission by all the named authors.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Received: 28 August 2023 Accepted: 8 December 2023
References
1. IEA (2021) Global EV Outlook 2021. IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021
2. Zhang Z, Pang H, Georgiadis A, Cecati C (2019) Wireless power transfer—an overview. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
66(2):1044–1058
3. Wu M et al (2022) A compact coupler with integrated multiple decoupled coils for wireless power transfer system
and its anti-misalignment control. IEEE Trans Power Electron 37(10):12814–12827
4. Y. Zhang et al., “Integration of onboard charger and wireless charging system for electric vehicles with shared cou-
pler, compensation, and rectifier,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., to be published, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2022.
3204857
5. Shi K, Tang C, Long H, Lv X, Wang Z, Li X (2022) Power fluctuation suppression method for EV dynamic wireless
charging system based on integrated magnetic coupler. IEEE Trans Power Electron 37(1):1118–1131
6. Li G, Ma H (2022) A hybrid IPT system with high-misalignment tolerance and inherent cc–cv output characteristics
for EVs charging applications. IEEE J Emerg Sel Topics Power Electron 10(3):3152–3160
7. Hui SY (2013) Planar wireless charging technology for portable electronic products and QI. Proc IEEE
101(6):1290–1301
8. Tang SC, Lun TLT, Guo Z, Kwok K, Mcdannold NJ (2017) Intermediate range wireless power transfer with segmented
coil transmitters for implantable heart pumps. IEEE Trans Power Electron 32(5):3844–3857
9. Y. Zhang et al., “Passive paralleling of multi-phase diode rectifier for wireless power transfer systems,” IEEE Trans.
Circuits Syst II, Exp. Briefs, to be published, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/TCSII.2022.3215465
10. Ahmad A, Alam MS, Chabaan R (2018) A comprehensive review of wireless charging technologies for electric vehi-
cles. IEEE Trans on Transp Electrific 4(1):38–63
11. Triviño A, González-González JM, Aguado JA (2021) Wireless power transfer technologies applied to electric vehi-
cles: a review. Energies 14(6):1547. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061547
12. Sharma A, Sharma S (2019) Review of power electronics in vehicle-togrid systems, pp 337–361
13. Trivino A, Gonzalez-Gonzalez JM, Castilla M (2021) Review on control techniques for EV bidirectional wireless
chargers. Electronics 10(16):1905. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/10/16/1905/htm, https://www.
mdpi.com/2079-9292/10/16/1905
14. Lee I-O, Moon G-W (2014) Half-bridge integrated ZVS full-bridge converter with reduced conduction loss for
electric vehicle battery chargers. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 61(8):3978–3988
15. Das D, Weise N, Basu K, Baranwal R, Mohan N (2019) A bidirectional soft-switched DAB-based single-stage three-
phase AC–DC converter for V2G application. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification 5(1):186–199.
https://doi.org/10.1109/T TE.2018.2886455
16. Gupta J, Kushwaha R, Singh B, Khadkikar V (2022) Improved power quality charging system based on high step-
down gain bridgeless SEPIC APFC for light electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 58(1):423–434. https://doi.org/
10.1109/TIA.2021.3120028
17. Oh CY, Kim DH, Woo DG, Sung WY, Kim YS, Lee BK (2013) A high-efficient nonisolated single-stage on-board bat-
tery charger for electric vehicles. IEEE transactions on Power Electronics 28(12):5746–5757
18. Sreehari P, Kumar NB, Ismayil C (2023) Two stage EV charger based on bridgeless PFC converter for e-Rickshaw.
2023 International Conference on Power, Instrumentation, Control and Computing (PICC), Thrissur, India, pp
1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/PICC57976.2023.10142594
19. Dixit A, Pande K, Gangavarapu S, Rathore AK (2020) DCM-based bridgeless PFC converter for EV charging
application. IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Industrial Electronics 1(1):57–66. https://doi.org/10.
1109/JESTIE.2020.2999595
20. Zhao Z, Davari P, Lu W, Blaabjerg F (2023) Online DC-link capacitance monitoring for digital-controlled boost
PFC converters without additional sampling devices. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 70(1):907–920.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2022.3153825
21. Sharifi S, Monfared M, Babaei M (2020) Ferdowsi rectifiers—single-phase buck-boost bridgeless PFC rectifiers
with low semiconductor count. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 67(11):9206–9214. https://doi.org/10.
1109/TIE.2019.2955430
22. Latif S, Irshad S, Ahmadi Kamarposhti M, Shokouhandeh H, Colak I, Eguchi K (2022) Intelligent design of
multi-machine power system stabilizers (PSSs) using improved particle swarm optimization. Electronics (Basel)
11(6):946
23. Kamarposhti MA, Lesani H (2011) Effects of STATCOM, TCSC, SSSC and UPFC on static voltage stability. Electr.
Eng. (Berl., Print) 93(1):33–42
24. Abul’Wafa AR (2011) Reliability/cost evaluation of a wind power delivery system. Electric Power Syst Res
81(4):873–879
25. Ahmadi Kamarposhti M (2018) Optimal control of islanded micro grid using particle swarm optimization algo-
rithm. International Journal of Industrial Electronics Control and Optimization 1(1):53–60
26. Kamarposhti MA, Mozafari SB, Soleymani S, Hosseini SM (2015) Improving the wind penetration level of the
power systems connected to doubly fed induction generator wind farms considering voltage stability con-
straints. J Renew Sustain Energy 7(4)
27. Shokouhandeh H, Latif S, Irshad S, Ahmadi Kamarposhti M, Colak I, Eguchi K (2021) Optimal management of
reactive power considering voltage and location of control devices using artificial bee algorithm. Appl Sci
(Basel) 12(1):27
28. Ahmadi Kamarposhti M, Shokouhandeh H, Alipur M, Colak I, Zare H, Eguchi K (2022) Optimal designing of fuzzy-
PID controller in the load-frequency control loop of hydro-thermal power system connected to wind farm by
HVDC lines. IEEE Access 10:63812–63822
29. Mohamed N et al (2022) A new wireless charging system for electric vehicles using two receiver coils. Ain Shams
Eng J 13(2):101569
30. Wang J et al (2022) Precise equivalent circuit model for Li-ion battery by experimental improvement and param-
eter optimization. J Energy Storage 52(104980):104980
31. Poopanya P, Sivalertporn K, Phophongviwat T (2022) A comparative study on the parameter identification of an
equivalent circuit model for an Li-ion battery based on different discharge tests. World Electric Veh J 13(3):50
32. Karakaş S, Şehirli E (2023) Full bridge DC-DC converter-based battery charger with PFC CUK converter having
hysteresis control. In: 2023 5th Global Power, Energy and Communication Conference (GPECOM)
33. Lin F-J, Huang M-S, Yeh P-Y, Tsai H-C, Kuan C-H (2012) DSP-based probabilistic fuzzy neural network control for
Li-ion battery charger. IEEE Trans Power Electron 27(8):3782–3794
34. Mohamed N, Aymen F, Alqarni M (2021) Inductive power transmission system for electric car charging phase:
modeling plus frequency analysis. World Electric Veh J 12(4):267
35. Krishna SA, Abraham L (2014) Boost converter-based power factor correction for single phase rectifier using
fuzzy logic control. In: 2014 First International Conference on Computational Systems and Communications
(ICCSC)
36. Sayed SS, Massoud AM (2022) Review on state-of-the-art unidirectional non-isolated power factor correction con-
verters for short-/long-distance electric vehicles. IEEE Access 10:11308–11340
37. Mahesh A, Chokkalingam B, Mihet-Popa L (2021) Inductive wireless power transfer charging for electric vehicles–a
review. IEEE Access 9:137667–137713
38. McGrath BP, Holmes DG (2002) Multicarrier PWM strategies for multilevel inverters. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
49:858–867
39. Holmes G, Lipo T (2003) Pulse width modulation for power converters: principles and practice. IEEE Press
40. Sushama M, Kumar PS, Reddy CL (2018) Implementation and performance analysis of cascaded multilevel inverter
using modified SVPWM techniques. Int J Power Electron 9(3):250
41. Lokeshwar Reddy C, Sree Lakshmi G (2022) Design of cascaded multilevel inverter-based STATCOM for reactive
power control with different novel PWM algorithms. In: Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering. Springer Nature
Singapore, Singapore, pp 1033–1053
42. Barwar MK, Kumar Sahu L, Bhatnagar P, Tripathi PR (2022) A multilevel PFC rectifier with sensor-less voltage balanc-
ing capability. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs 69(12):5029–5033. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TCSII.2022.3199088
43. Jain A, Gupta KK, Jain SK (2023) a novel single/multiple output multilevel buck rectifier for EV-battery charging. IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology 72(4):4384–4393. https://doi.org/10.1109/T VT.2022.3222349
44. Jain A, Agarwal R, Gupta KK, Jain SK (2022) A V2G-enabled seven-level buck PFC rectifier for EV charging application.
2022 24th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE’22 ECCE Europe), Hanover, Germany,
pp 1–10
45. Dusmez S, Li X, Akin B (2014) A single-stage three-level isolated PFC converter. 2014 IEEE Energy Conversion Con-
gress and Exposition (ECCE), Pittsburgh, PA, USA, pp 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1109/ECCE.2014.6953447
46. Xiong K et al (2019) 5-level flying capacitor bridgeless PFC converter using cost-effective low-voltage GaN transis-
tors. 2019 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Baltimore, MD, USA, pp 187–192. https://doi.org/
10.1109/ECCE.2019.8912751
47. Lachvajderova L, Kadarova J (2021) Analysis of internal combustion engine vehicle, battery electric vehicle and
emissions from transport. Transp Logistics 21:21–33
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

s44147-023-00333-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

s44147-023-00333-2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

s44147-023-00333-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dakka et al.

RESEARCH Open Access

A 5‑kW unidirectional wireless power

Fig. 1 Wireless EV power transmission system

Fig. 2 Block diagram of wireless power transfer

Mathematical model of the wireless charging system

As shown in Fig. 3, it stands a dominant DC voltage source, also prominently fea-

q(t) is the time-integral of the battery’s remaining capacity, and it is expressed as

q(t) = q(0) − (ηbatt Ibatt )dt (2)

Fig. 3 Li-ion battery equivalent circuit

Mathematical formulation of a statistic model

Mathematical formulation of dynamic model

SPS = −UPS IS∗ = −jωMiP (7)

The apparent power that is transferred from LS to LP can be determined as following

SSP = −USP IP∗ = −jωMiS iP∗ (8)

where the true power transfer can be presented as follows:

PPS = ωMIP IS sin ϕPS (9)

Proposed multi‑level PFC boost converter rectifier

Fig. 4 Proposed multi-level PFC boost converter rectifier

Fig. 5 A two-stage unidirectional EV wireless charging converter

Table 1 Multi-level PFC boost rectifier parameters

Voltage of AC grid 120-V RMS

Cascaded inner loop control design

Cascaded outer loop control design

Fig. 6 Cascaded design control block diagram applied on multi-level rectifier

The output current control loop (HI (S)) is expressed as follows:

Multicarrier PWM technique

Results and discussion

Fig. 8 Multi-level voltage at PFC rectifier input side

Fig. 9 Voltage and current waveforms of the source

Fig. 10 DC link voltage and DC link current

assessment of system performance, efficiency, and power transfer capabilities. Figure 11

Fig. 11 Inverter side voltage and current waveforms

Fig. 12 Voltage and current waveforms on vehicle side

Fig. 13 Battery voltage and current

Fig. 14 Experiment setup

Table 2 The novelty of proposed work is compared with standard topologies

q(t) Battery’s remaining capacity (Wh)

is Grid current (A)

Availability of data and materials

Received: 28 August 2023 Accepted: 8 December 2023

You might also like