Province of San Antonio de Padua – Philippines

ORDER OF FRIARS MINOR (OFM) – FRANCISCANS

Christ the King College of Calbayog City, Inc.

THE PIONEER CATHOLIC FRANCISCAN INSTITUTION OF EASTERN VISAYAS
Founded 1905
INSTITUTE OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Studiositas Fraternitas Minoritas Oratio et Devotio

SOCIAL WORK FIELD PRACTICE

REVIEWER
Human Behavioral and Social Environment

Baguio, Regine
Balolot, Ralph
Belaro, Ken-Ken
Catalan, Merliza
Dugena, Michael Jay
Delos Reyes, Rosalia
Pagatpat, Decca
Porlares, Janerell
Puenteblanca, Shanice Karylle
Tayab, Jermelyn

Prepared for:
DR. GERALD B. FIEL, RN, MAN-MSN, DNM
CA 1 Instructor

A.Y. 2024-2025
 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
(1) PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Classical Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis, a
method through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free
associations, dreams and fantasies of the person. His theories on child sexuality, libido and
the ego, among other topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of the
20th century.
• What is Psychoanalysis?
It is the attempt to explain personality, motivation and psychological disorders by
focusing on the influence of early childhood experiences, on unconscious motives and
conflicts, and on the methods people use to cope with their sexual and aggressive urges.
➢ The main emphasis of the Pychoanalytic theory is to understand the unconscious as he
insisted that people are motivated primarily by drives of which they have little or no
awareness of.
Unconscious- consists of sexual and aggressive instincts that are unacceptable to the
conscious personality.
ICEBERG THEORY
Freud’s iceberg theory metaphorically represents the mind’s three levels: the conscious
(visible tip of the iceberg), the preconscious (just below the surface), and the unconscious
(vast submerged portion). Below is an illustration:

To Freud, mental life is divided into three levels. The conscious, preconscious, and the
unconscious.
1. Conscious- contains all the experiences and mental elements that we are aware of at any
given point in time, meaning, it is available to us directly.
2. Preconscious- consists of all mental elements which can be retrieved from memory.
These are thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently aware of, but which can
easily be brought to consciousness. It exists just below the level of consciousness, before
the unconscious mind.
3. Unconscious- refers to that part of the psyche that contains repressed ideas and images,
as well as primitive desires and impulses that have never been allowed to enter the
conscious mind. It includes all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our
awareness but that nevertheless influences our behavior.
 According to Freud, the unconscious is the reason behind dreams, slips of the tongue, and
certain kinds of forgetting, called repression.
In understanding the unconscious mind, Freud developed methods in unveiling its thoughts
and motives.
1. Dream Analysis- is a technique using dreams to reveal unconscious motives by exploring
the symbolic contents of dreams. The process includes the identification between the
manifest content (what it appears to be) and the latent content (the hidden, symbolic, and
unconscious meaning behind the dream).
2. Free Association- is a technique that aims to access the unconscious mind by expressing
(without censorship) whatever thoughts, words, or images come to mind.
3. Everyday Life- he believed that every human behavior has a cause and nothing happens
simply by chance. Therefore, the manifestations in everyday life are ways of getting a
glimpse into the unconscious.
4. Humor- like dream, humor can be related to unconscious content. jokes (the verbal form
of humor) happen when the conscious allowed the expression of thoughts that society
usually suppressed or forbade. “Jokes are half meant” as people say.

DRIVING FORCES WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL (INSTINCTS)

Instincts: Instinct is a natural ability or reaction that helps you decide what to do or how
to act without thinking.
1. EROS (Life Instinct)
> Helps promote survival, reproduction, and social cooperation.
> Sometimes referred to as sexual instincts, the life drive deals with basic survival,
pleasure, and reproduction.
LIBIDO- energy created by the life drive and drives a person toward pleasurable behaviors
and thoughts.
2. THANATOS (Death Instincts)
> Freud theorized that humans are driven toward death and destruction, famously
declaring that "the aim of all life is death." believed that people typically channel this death
drive outward, which manifests as aggression toward others. People also can direct this
drive inward, however, which can result in self-harm or suicide.
STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY
Freud believed that human personality is complex and is composed of so many
elements that drive behavior. With this, he came up with three elements: the id, the ego,
and the superego.
1. ID
- considered the basis of sexual and aggressive energy and is largely held in the
unconscious, emerging as illogical or wishful thinking.
- reservoir for libido and instincts, which is essential and strongly tied to meeting physical
requirements.
- Only understands instant satisfaction, which pushes us to do what we want, when we want
it, regardless of what other people want.
- Operates in accordance to the Pleasure Principle
2. EGO
- is tasked with balancing reality with the demands of desire (id) and morality (superego).
- The aim is to assist the id in achieving the desired reduction of tension.
-Does not stop the id; instead, it delays, reroutes, or postpones the id in response to the
needs of reality.
-It operates in line with the Reality Principle by seeing and modifying the surroundings in
a realistic and practical way.
- The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
3. SUPEREGO
- holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents and
society (our sense of right and wrong).
- It suppresses all the id's unacceptable urges and struggles to make the ego act upon
idealistic standards rather than on realistic principles.
- The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.
It is composed of two parts:
(1) The conscience which includes information about things that are viewed as bad by
parents and society
(2) The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.
According to Freud, since these three components all influence our personality, continuous
conflict is developed between the id, ego, and superego which is called perpetual conflict.
According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego,
and the superego. If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality,
the id, and the superego, a healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed
that an imbalance between these elements would lead to a maladaptive personality such as
anxiety.
ANXIETY
- is the fundamental development of neurotic and psychotic behaviour.
THREE TYPES OF ANXIETY:
1. Reality or Objective Anxiety
Involves a fear of tangible dangers in the real world. It is related to the ego’s need to protect
oneself from dangers of the real world. For example, the fear of being in an accident.
2. Neurotic Anxiety
The unconscious fear of being punished for displaying the instincts of the id that might
lead to behavior causing punishment.
3. Moral Anxiety
The fear of one’s conscience and results in the conflict between the ego and superego.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
➢ are unconscious psychological responses that protect people from feelings of anxiety,
threats to self-esteem, and things that they don't want to think about or deal with.
 10 KEY DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Defense Mechanisms Description Example
Displacement Taking feelings out on Being angry at your boss but
others. taking it out on your spouse
instead
Denial Denying that something Being the victim of a violent
exists. crime, yet denying that the
incident occurred

Repression Unconsciously keeping Being abused as a child but

unpleasant information not remembering the abuse
from your conscious mind

Suppression Consciously keeping Being abused as a child but

unpleasant information choosing to push it out of
from your conscious mind your mind

Sublimation Converting unacceptable Being upset with your

impulses into more spouse but going for a walk
acceptable outlets instead of fighting
Projection Assigning your own Feeling attracted to
unacceptable feelings or someone other than your
qualities to others spouse, then fearing that
your spouse is cheating on
you
Intellectualization Thinking about stressful Losing a close family
things in a clinical way member and staying busy
with making the necessary
arrangements instead of
feeling sad

Rationalization Justifying an unacceptable Being denied a loan for your

feeling or behavior with dream house, then saying
logic it's a good thing because the
house was too big anyway

Regression Reverting to earlier Hugging a teddy bear when

behaviors you're stressed, like you did
when you were a child

Reaction Formation Replacing an unwanted Being sad about a recent

impulse with its opposite breakup, but acting happy
about it
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
➢ Sigmund Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during
five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.
During each stage, sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through
different body parts. These are called psychosexual stages because each stage
represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a
different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of their body
become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or
both.
➢ FIXATION - refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual’s libido has
been permanently “invested” in a particular stage of his development.
1. ORAL STAGE (1st year of life)
The Oral Stage is the first stage of Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development,
occurring from birth until approximately 18 months. During the oral stage, a baby’s libido,
or innate pleasure-seeking energy, is focused on the mouth.
➢ The baby derives immense satisfaction from engaging in oral activities such as sucking,
biting, breastfeeding, and chewing various objects, satisfying their inherent desires.
➢ Freud theorized that experiences during the oral stage significantly influence
personality development. For instance, he suggested that a child underfed or frustrated
during feedings might become a pessimistic, envious, and suspicious adult. On the other
hand, a child who is overfed or overly gratified could become optimistic, gullible, and
full of admiration.
ORAL FIXATION
➢ Freud also linked oral behaviors to specific personality types in adulthood. For
example, a person fixated on the oral stage may engage in excessive eating, smoking,
nail-biting, or becoming overly talkative, symbolizing the continued fulfillment of oral
needs.
2. ANAL STAGE (2nd year of life)
➢ The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development happens between
the ages of 18 months and three years.
➢ During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives
great pleasure from defecating. An example of this stage would be a child who
takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their bowels.
➢ Freud believed this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in
which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The
nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child’s future
relationship with all forms of authority.
ANAL FIXATION
➢ Unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such
as excessive cleanliness, stubbornness, or a need for control.
1. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive
personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual, and respectful of
authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
2. The anal-expulsive personality underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during
the anal stage. In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share
things with you. They like giving things away. An anal-expulsive personality is
also messy, disorganized, and rebellious.
3. PHALLIC STAGE (3RD to 5th year of life)
➢ The phallic stage, which spans ages three to five, is the third phase of psychosexual
development, identified by Sigmund Freud. This period is marked by the child’s
libido (or desire) focusing on their genitals as the primary source of pleasure. In this
 stage, children become increasingly aware of their bodies, exhibiting a heightened
interest in their own genitals and those of the opposite sex.
➢ Additionally, their understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form,
sparking a complex mixture of emotions – erotic attraction, rivalry, jealousy,
resentment, and fear – collectively termed the Oedipus complex in boys and the
Electra complex in girls. This period of conflict is resolved through identification,
where children start adopting the characteristics of their same-sex parent.
OEDIPUS COMPLEX- arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires
for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to
enable him to do so.
CASTRATION ANXIETY- the fear of retaliation from the father (castration anxiety)
eventually leads the boy to repress these incestuous desires and identify with the father,
adopting his characteristics and values.
ELECTRA COMPLEX- posits that during the phallic stage of psychosexual
development (roughly between ages 3-6), a girl unconsciously cultivates a sexual
attraction towards her father, viewing her mother as a competitor.
PENIS ENVY- the girl covets her father, yet recognizes that she lacks a penis, leading
to the phenomenon Freud labeled as ‘penis envy’ and a subsequent wish to be male.
This girl then ostensibly resolves her dilemma by repressing her desire for her father
and replacing her yearning for a penis with a longing for a baby.
4. LATENCY STAGE (6 years to Puberty)
➢ The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six
years to puberty. The libido is dormant during this stage, and no further
psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden). In this stage, Freud
believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative calm.
➢ Much of the child’s energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring
new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same
gender. An example of this stage would be a child who engages in hobbies and
interests rather than sexual activities.
5. GENITAL STAGE (Puberty to Adulthood)
➢ During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is directed towards
peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality.
➢ During this stage, individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore
their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly.
This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the
formation of intimate relationships.

Contemporary Psychoanalytic or Ego Psychology (Erik Erikson)

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and
influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst
Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than
psychosexual development. Erikson's theory explained the influence of social experience
throughout the lifespan, in contrast to Freud's conception of psychosexual phases. Erikson
was concerned in the roles that relationships and social contact played in human
development.
➢ Epigenetic Principle- this principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that
occurs over time and in the context of a larger community.
➢ In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning
point in development. These conflicts are centered on either developing a
 psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the
potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure. If people
successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail, they will
not develop these essential skills.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
➢ According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, the earliest and most
important stage of life is between birth and one year of age. Since an infant is reliant,
building confidence depends on the caregivers' reliability and caliber. The kid
depends on adult caregivers for all they require to survive at this stage of
development, including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurture. A youngster will
learn that they can't rely on or trust the adults in their lives if a caregiver doesn't
provide them enough attention and love.
➢ If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to
feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will
result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

➢ The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place
during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control. At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a
little independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices
and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of
autonomy.
➢ The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal
control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an
important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Children who
successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving
a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the
belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

➢ The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years.
At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and
control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children
who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail
to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

➢ The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop
a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
➢ Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
 encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

➢ The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years.
This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which
will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.
Teens must grow into individuals with a sense of self. Failure results in role
confusion and a weakened sense of self, but success leads to the ability to stay loyal
to oneself. Children explore their freedom and form a sense of self during
adolescence. Children who go through this era with the right support and guidance
will come out with a strong sense of self as well as feelings of independence and
control. People who are still unaware about their values and aspirations will
experience insecurity and confusion.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

➢ Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success
leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This
stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and secure.
➢ Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked
by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

➢ Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
➢ During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this
skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

➢ The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back
on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives
and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the
things they did or didn't do.
➢ Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready
to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only
feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing
the things they feel they should have.
2. BEHAVIORIST THEORIES
Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
Piaget argued that children’s cognitive development occurs in stages. Specifically, he
posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to the next, their behavior also
changes, reflecting these cognitive developments.
The stages in his theory follow a specific order, and each subsequent stage only occurs
after the one before it.
These stages are:
➢ Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years old)
➢ Preoperational stage (2–7 years old)
➢ Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old)
➢ Formal operational stage (11 years old through adulthood)
1. The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the
earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:
• Know the world through movements and sensations
• Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
• Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
• Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
2. The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage,
but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of
development.
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:
• Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects
• Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others
• Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete
terms
3. The Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people
might view a situation.
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:
• Begin to think logically about concrete events
• Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
• Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
4. The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, adolescents and young
adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them.
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:
• Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
• Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
SCHEMA
- describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
understand the world.
ASSIMILATION
-The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is
known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to
modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.
ACCOMODATION
- Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light of new
information; this process is known as accommodation. New schemas may also be
developed during this process.
EQUILIBRATION
- As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).
- Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps
explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.
Operant Reinforcement Theory (Burrhus Skinner)
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, commonly known as B.F. Skinner, was an American
psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher who developed the
theory of operant conditioning, which is a key aspect of his reinforcement theory. His work
significantly influenced the field of psychology, particularly in understanding human
behavior and learning processes.
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
➢ Is a theory of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behavior
that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished
will occur less frequently.
Types of Operant Behaviors:
1. Neutral Behaviors: These are actions that have no significant consequences and do not
result in learning or behavioral change.
2. Reinforcement: Positive consequences that strengthen behaviors, making them more
likely to occur in the future.
3. Punishment: Negative consequences that weaken behaviors, making them less likely to
occur in the future.
Types of Reinforcement:
1. Positive Reinforcement: Involves presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior,
increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. For example, giving praise to a
student for completing homework on time.
2. Negative Reinforcement: Involves removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior,
increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. For example, allowing a student
to skip a homework assignment if they achieve a high score on a test.
Reinforcement Schedules:
Skinner identified different schedules of reinforcement that affect the frequency and
strength of behavior:
1. Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses.
2. Variable Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses
3. Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered after a specific amount of time has passed.
4. Variable Interval: Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable amount of time has
passed.
3. HUMANISTIC THEORIES
Humanistic Psychology (Abraham Maslow)
Maslow was most famous for his proposal that human motivation is founded on a hierarchy
of needs. The fundamental principle behind this hierarchy is that people are born with
certain needs, the fulfillment of which allows us to move forward and fulfill other more
complex needs. Maslow also proposed that man has many different needs, some of which
take precedence over the others.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier
model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.Needs lower
down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.
From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and
belonging, esteem and self-actualization.
1. Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for
Human survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs
are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered
physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these
needs are met.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from
fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been
fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behaviorExamples include friendship,
intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being
part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: esteem for oneself
(dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and the desire for reputation or respect from
others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is
most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
5. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self- fulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of
becoming”
Deficiency needs vs. Growth needs
This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first
four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known
as growth or being needs (B-needs).
➢ Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they
are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer
the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food,
the hungrier they will become.
➢ Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow
as a person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be
able to reach the highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and
has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization.
Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower-level needs.
Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job, may cause an individual to
fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.

Self-Theory or Person-Centered Theory (Carl Rogers)

Person-centered theory was developed by Carl Rogers in the 1940s. This type of therapy
diverged from the traditional model of the therapist as expert and moved instead toward a
nondirective, empathic approach that empowers and motivates the client in the therapeutic
process. The therapy is based on Rogers’s belief that every human being strives for and has
the capacity to fulfill his or her own potential. Person-centered therapy, also known as
Rogerian therapy, has had a tremendous impact on the field of psychotherapy and many
other disciplines. Rather than viewing people as inherently flawed, with problematic
behaviors and thoughts that require treatment, person-centered therapy identifies that each
person has the capacity and desire for personal growth and change.
ACTUALIZING TENDENCY
- Rogers believed that the underlying motive that all people share is a need to become
self-actualized. The self-actualized person is essentially an individual who has
reached their highest potential.
CLIENT CENTERED
- During client centered therapy or person-centered therapy, a therapist acts as a
compassionate facilitator, listening without judgment and acknowledging the
client’s experience without shifting the conversation in another direction. The
therapist is there to encourage and support the client without interrupting or
interfering with their process of self-discovery, as they uncover what hurts and what
is needed to repair it
 PHASES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Mode V.S. Time Age Description Significant

Relations
1. Oral Sensory Trust vs. Infancy Birth- 1 If the crisis is Mothering One
Mode Mistrust Year Old successfully resolved,
hope emerges.
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
fear/withdrawal
emerges.
2. Muscular Autonomy Early 2-3 years If the crisis is Parents
Anal Mode vs. Shame childhood old successfully resolved,
and Doubt: self-control and
willpower emerges.
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
self-doubt/compulsion
emerges.
3. Genital Initiative vs. Play age 4-5 years If the crisis is Family
Locomotor Guilt old successfully resolved,
Mode direction and purpose
emerge.
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
feelings of unworthiness
emerge.
4. Latency Industry vs. School-age 6-11 If the crisis is Neighborhood and
Mode Inferiority years old successfully resolved, School
competence emerges.
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
inferiority/inertia
emerges.
5. Puberty Identity vs. Adolescence 12-20 If the crisis is Peer Groups
Mode Role years old successfully resolved,
Confusion fidelity emerges.
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
uncertainty/role
repudiation
emerges
6. Genitality Intimacy vs. Young 20-24 If the crisis is Sexual Partner
Mode Isolation adulthood years old successfully resolved, and Friends
the capacity for love
emerges.
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
promiscuity/exclusivity
emerges
7. Procreativity Generativity Adulthood 25-65 If the crisis is Divided labor and
Mode vs. years old successfully resolved, shared household
Stagnation care emerges.
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
selfishness emerges.
8. Generalization Ego Integrity old age 65 years “If the crisis is All humanity
Of Sensual vs. Despair to death successfully resolved,
Modes wisdom emerges,
If the crisis is
unsuccessfully resolved,
feelings of despair and
meaninglessness emerge
HAVIGHURST’S DEVELOPMENTAL TASK THEORY
Robert J. Havighurst was an American educator and psychologist known for his theory on
developmental tasks. He proposed that individuals face specific tasks at different stages of life,
from infancy to old age. Successfully completing these tasks leads to happiness and success in
later stages, while failure can result in difficulties. His work emphasizes the importance of social,
cultural, and personal factors in development, highlighting how these tasks help individuals
integrate into society and achieve personal growth.
He emphasized that learning is basic and that it continues throughout life span. Growth and
Development occurs in six stages. Each stage outlines key milestones and challenges individuals
may encounter during that period.
Infancy and Early Middle Childhood (6-12 years) Pre-adolescence and
Childhood (Birth to 6 years) Adolescence (12-18 years)

• Learning to walk • Learning physical skills • Achieving new and more

• Learning to take solid feeds necessary for ordinary games mature relations with age-
• Learning to control the • Building wholesome attitudes mates of both sexes
elimination of body wastes toward oneself as a growing • Achieving a masculine or
• Learning sex differences organism feminine social role
and sexual modesty • Learning to get along with age- • Accepting one’s physique and
• Achieving physiological mates using the body effectively
stability • Learning an appropriate • Achieving emotional
• Forming simple concepts of masculine or feminine social role independence of parents and
social and physical reality • Developing fundamental skills other adults
• Learning to relate oneself in reading, writing and calculating • Achieving assurance of
emotionally to parents, • Developing concepts necessary economic independence
siblings and other people for everyday living • Selecting and preparing for
• Learning to distinguish right • Developing conscience, morality an occupation
and wrong and developing a and a scale of values • Preparing for experience and
conscience • Achieving attitudes toward family life
social group and institutions • Developing intellectual skills
and concepts necessary for
civic acceptance
• Desiring and achieving
socially responsible behavior
• Acquiring a set of values and
an ethical system as a guide to
behavior

Early Adulthood (18-35 Middle Age (35 to 60 years) Later Life (60 years to death)
years)
• Selecting a mate • Achieving adult, civic and social • Adjusting to decreasing
• Learning to live with a responsibility physical strength
marriage partner • Establishing and maintaining an • Adjustment to retirement and
• Starting a family economic standard of living reduced income
• Rearing children • Assisting teenage children to • Adjusting to death of spouse
• Managing a home become responsible and happy • Establishing an explicit
• Getting started in an adults affiliation with one’s age group
occupation • Developing oneself to one’s • Meeting social and civic
• Taking on a civic spouse as a person obligation
responsibility • Learning to accept and adjust to • Establishing satisfactory
• Binding a congenial social the physiological changes of living arrangements
group middle age
• Adjusting to aging parents
 DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR

Heredity
Heredity refers to the genetic makeup inherited from parents. Genes play a significant role
in determining physical traits, temperament, and certain behavioral tendencies. conditions. These
include brain chemistry, hormonal balances, and other physiological aspects that can affect
behavior. Genetic factors often interact with environmental influences to shape behavior.

Environment
This includes family, friends, and social interactions. The values, norms, and behaviors
observed in one’s social circle can significantly shape an individual’s behavior. The surroundings
in which a person lives, such as their home, neighborhood, and school, also impact behavior.
Access to resources, safety, and exposure to different experiences play a role. Cultural background
and societal expectations influence behavior by providing a framework of accepted norms and
practices.

Training
Formal education and informal learning experiences contribute to behavior by providing
knowledge, skills, and socialization. Training can shape behavior through reinforcement,
modeling, and practice. Techniques such as positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and
observational learning (learning by watching others) are used to modify behavior.

Interaction of Determinants
These determinants do not operate in isolation but interact in complex ways to shape an
individual’s behavior. For instance, a person might have a genetic predisposition for a particular
trait, but their environment and training can either enhance or mitigate this predisposition.

THE FILIPINO FAMILY

A family, as defined by Murdock (1949), is a social group characterized by common

residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It is considered the most basic autonomous
unit in society, serving as the foundation of the nation, according to the Philippine Constitution.
This universally recognized social group plays a significant role in individual lives, fostering
repetitive and continuous contact, close and intimate relationships, and intense emotional
experiences throughout life.

Filipino families, in particular, are known for their close and intimate bonds. This family unit
not only affects an individual's social values, disposition, and outlook but also links them to the
larger society. Through the transmission of culture, families provide continuity of social life,
ensuring the preservation of traditions and values across generations.

Historical Perspectives

Pre-Spanish Period

Social Structure

Filipino families were organized into small, self-sufficient communities called

“barangays.” Each barangay was led by a chieftain known as a “datu,” who held both political and
social authority. Society was largely communal, with strong family ties and a focus on collective
well-being. Families worked together in agriculture, fishing, and other communal activities,
ensuring mutual support and cooperation. Within the barangay, there was a clear social hierarchy.
The datu was at the top, followed by the maharlika (nobles), timawa (freemen), and alipin (servants
or slaves). Each group had specific roles and responsibilities, contributing to the overall
functioning of the community.

Cultural Practices

Daily life was deeply rooted in indigenous customs and traditions. These included rituals,
ceremonies, and practices that were passed down through generations. The belief in anitos (spirits)
and diwatas (deities) was central to their worldview. These spirits were believed to inhabit natural
objects and places, influencing various aspects of life. Storytelling, songs, and epics were vital in
preserving history, culture, and values. Oral traditions served as a means of education and
entertainment, ensuring that cultural knowledge was transmitted across generations. Family
interactions and societal behavior were guided by unwritten social norms and values, emphasizing
respect for elders, communal harmony, and cooperation.

Spanish Period

Colonial Influence

The Spanish colonization (1565-1898) introduced Christianity to the Philippines,

significantly altering family structures and values. The Catholic Church became a central
institution, influencing various aspects of life, including marriage, family roles, and education. The
Church’s teachings and practices were deeply integrated into Filipino culture, leading to
widespread conversion and the establishment of numerous churches and religious schools. The
Catholic Church played essential role in shaping societal norms and values. It regulated marriages,
promoted Christian family values, and provided education through religious orders such as the
Augustinians, Franciscans, Jesuits, and Dominicans. The Church’s influence extended to social
justice and community activities, making it a cornerstone of Filipino identity.

Social Hierarchy

The Spanish established a rigid class system that affected family dynamics and social
mobility. At the top were the “peninsulares” (Spaniards born in Spain), followed by the “insulares”
(Spaniards born in the Philippines), “mestizos” (mixed-race individuals), and “indios” (native
Filipinos). This hierarchy influenced access to education, economic opportunities, and social
status. The class system created disparities in wealth and power, affecting family dynamics. Elite
families often had better access to education and resources, while lower-class families faced
limitations. This system also influenced marriage practices, with alliances often formed to
maintain or enhance social status.

American Period

Educational Reforms

During the American colonization (1898-1946), the U.S. established a public education
system in the Philippines, promoting the English language and Western values. This system
included elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education, with English as the medium of
instruction. The introduction of public education aimed to create a literate and educated populace,
fostering a sense of national identity and Filipino nationalism. The emphasis on education and the
adoption of Western values contributed to the rise of a more nuclear family structure. Education
became a means for social mobility, and families began to prioritize schooling for their children.

Economic Changes

The American period saw significant industrialization and urbanization in the Philippines.
Infrastructure development, such as roads, bridges, and public buildings, facilitated economic
growth and urban expansion. As cities grew and industries developed, more women entered the
workforce, leading to shifts in traditional family roles. Women began to take on jobs outside the
home, contributing to the family’s income and gaining more independence. This period marked a
transition from agrarian-based livelihoods to more diverse economic activities, including
manufacturing and services.

Post-American Period

Independence and Modernization

Independence: The Philippines gained independence from the United States on July 4,
1946, marking the end of over 400 years of colonial rule. This significant milestone was
accompanied by severe post-war challenges, including widespread destruction, economic
hardship, and the loss of approximately one million Filipino lives during World War II.
Modernization: Post-independence, the Philippines embarked on a path of rapid
modernization. This period saw significant infrastructure development, industrialization, and
urbanization. Families began to adopt more diverse and globalized practices while retaining
traditional values. The influence of Western culture, coupled with the preservation of Filipino
traditions, created a unique blend in family dynamics.

Contemporary Issues

Migration: One of the major challenges faced by modern Filipino families is migration.
Many Filipinos seek employment opportunities abroad, leading to the phenomenon of Overseas
Filipino Workers (OFWs). This migration impacts family structures, often resulting in long-
distance relationships and the need for alternative caregiving arrangements. Economic Pressures:
Economic pressures, including poverty, unemployment, and income inequality, continue to affect
Filipino families. These pressures can lead to stress and changes in family roles, with more
members, including women, entering the workforce to support the family. Changing Gender Roles:
The modernization and economic changes have also led to evolving gender roles within families.
Women increasingly participate in the workforce, and there is a gradual shift towards more
egalitarian family structures. However, traditional gender expectations still persist, creating a
dynamic interplay between modern and traditional roles.

THE CONTEMPORARY FILIPINO FAMILY

Socio-cultural factors influencing the Filipino family

Family patterns and changing roles

Family Structure Description

Nuclear Family Parents and their children.
Extended Family Two or more nuclear families related economically and socially.
• Conjugal Family Focuses on married couple and children.
• Consanguineal Family Focuses on blood relatives.
Family Residence
Patrilocal Family Newlyweds live with the groom's family.
Matrilocal Family Newlyweds live with the bride's family.
Bilocal Family Newlyweds choose where to live.
Neolocal Family Newlyweds live independently.
Avunculocal Family Newlyweds live with the groom's maternal uncle.
Family Descent
Patrilineal Descent Affiliation with father's relatives.
Matrilineal Descent Affiliation with mother's relatives.
Bilateral Descent Affiliation with both parents' relatives.
Family Authority
Patriarchal Family Authority vested in the oldest male.
Matriarchal Family Authority vested in the eldest female relative (rare).
Equalitarian Family Equal authority for husband and wife.
Matricentric Family Mother has dominant position due to absent father.
Family Marriage
Monogamy One spouse at a time.
Polygamy Multiple spouses.
• Polygyny One-man, multiple wives.
• Polyandry One-woman, multiple husbands.
• Group Marriage Multiple men and women.

Variations:
• Two-parent married couple families
• Single-parent families
• Stepfamilies
• Cohabiting couples
• Gay and Lesbian couples
• Single individual
Functions:

Function Description Example

Sexual Regulation Socially sanctioned sexual Traditional Filipino culture often
intercourse through emphasizes marriage as the appropriate
marriage. context for sexual expression.
Biological Reproduction of members Families play a crucial role in ensuring
Regulation for societal survival. the continuation of the population
through procreation.
Organizing, Economic unit in pre- In rural areas, families might work
Production, and industrial societies. together in agriculture or small
Consumption businesses.
Socializing Children Nurturing and teaching Parents and extended family members
children societal norms and often instill cultural values, manners,
values. and beliefs in children.
Providing Emotional Sense of security, Families offer a safe and supportive
Intimacy and belonging, and worth. environment, fostering emotional well-
Support being.
Providing Care and Fulfilling basic human Families provide nourishment, shelter,
Attention needs. and healthcare for their members.
Providing Social Ascribed statuses based on In some societies, family lineage and
Status family background. social class can influence an individual's
social standing.
Providing a Encouraging desirable Family rules and expectations can shape
Mechanism for behavior. behavior and reinforce societal norms.
Social Control
First School of Life Parents as primary teachers Parents teach children essential skills
for basic life lessons. like communication, problem-solving,
and cooperation.
Maintaining Order Communication, interaction Families establish rules and expectations
patterns, affection, and to maintain harmony and address
sanctions. conflicts.
Placement in Larger Preparing members for Families help individuals develop the
Society participation in society. skills and values needed to succeed in
their communities.
Maintaining Providing support and a Families can offer encouragement,
Motivation and sense of belonging. motivation, and a sense of community,
Morale especially during challenging times.

Institutions:

1. Schools: Educational institutions are pivotal in shaping the values and knowledge of Filipino
children. Schools instill discipline, respect, and academic skills, which are essential for
personal and professional development. They also promote socialization and interaction
among peers, fostering a sense of community and cooperation.
2. Church: The Catholic Church, being the dominant religion in the Philippines, has a profound
influence on Filipino family life. The Church’s teachings on family values, such as the
importance of marriage, respect for elders, and the sanctity of life, strongly shape family
dynamics and moral standards.
3. Media: Media, including television, radio, and social media, significantly impact Filipino
families by shaping public opinion, cultural norms, and lifestyle choices. Media can influence
family values, fashion trends, and even political views, playing a crucial role in the
dissemination of information and cultural exchange.
4. Community Organizations: Local community associations and cultural organizations help
preserve and transmit traditional Filipino values and practices. These groups provide support
networks, promote cultural heritage, and foster a sense of belonging and identity among
members.
Cultural Variables:

Element Definition Characteristics Examples

Folkways Everyday behaviors or Organized and repetitive, Greeting customs,
practices of a group change gradually over time. table manners, ways
done in a common way. of dressing for
occasions.
Mores Special folkways with Involve respect for authority, Rules about lying,
moral or ethical marriage, sex, religion, and stealing, appropriate
significance. basic human behavior. sexual conduct.
Represent a society's moral
code.
Folklore Traditional customs, Unwritten and passed down Folktales, myths,
beliefs, expressions, and through generations. Includes legends, lullabies.
stories passed down songs, dances, tales, sayings,
orally. and proverbs.
Customs Distinctive styles or Specific to a period, country, Traditional clothing
prevailing fashions of a class, occupation, or occasion. styles, religious
particular group or Can be related to fashion, practices, holiday
context. etiquette, or rituals. celebrations.
Language A system of Special way of expressing Spoken and written
communication used by thoughts and ideas. Enables languages, sign
a community. human interaction. languages.
Values Importance, worth, or Guide choices and behaviors. Criteria for decision-
desirability attributed to Can be individual or shared by a making, direct
something. group. Provide a basis for social interests and
interaction and sanctions. attention.
Filipino Family Values (based on Fr. Jaime Bulatao's research)
Value Description
Emotional closeness and security Family is a source of emotional support and acceptance.
The authority value Respect for authority figures and social approval are
important.
Economic and social betterment Desire to improve the family's standard of living
Patience, suffering, and endurance Value associated with overcoming challenges and faith.

PHYSICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FILIPINO FAMILY

Environmental Changes

Environmental changes refer to alterations in the natural world that occur over time, both
naturally and as a result of human activities. These changes can include shifts in climate patterns,
such as rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns, as well as modifications to
ecosystems, such as deforestation, pollution, and habitat destruction. Environmental changes can
have significant impacts on biodiversity, human health, and economic activities, and
understanding these changes is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate their
negative effects.

Environmental Impact on Families Public Awareness Perceptions and

Issue Beliefs
Environmental Increased risk of health Many Filipinos are Most Filipinos
Pollution (air, problems, including concerned about believe pollution is
water, land) respiratory illnesses, pollution's effects on caused by human
waterborne diseases, and their health. activities.
injuries from extreme
weather.
Deforestation Decreased soil fertility, Many Filipinos are Filipinos identify
increased erosion, and aware of deforestation as a
disruption of natural deforestation's major factor
 habitats. negative worsening the
consequences. impact of disasters.
Urbanization Overcrowding, straining of Some Filipinos are Varies depending on
resources, and social concerned about the personal experiences
problems. challenges of and exposure to
urbanization. urban issues.
Overall Health risks, economic Increasing Diverse beliefs
losses, displacement. awareness, but about causes and
significant portion links to disasters.
has low
understanding.

Filipinos who perceive the direct impact of climate change on their lives and communities
are more likely to take proactive measures to prepare for disasters. This heightened awareness
often translates into increased efforts to mitigate risks and enhance resilience. For instance,
individuals who have experienced or observed the effects of extreme weather events, such as
typhoons, flooding, or rising sea levels, are more inclined to engage in disaster preparedness
activities. These activities can include creating emergency plans, participating in community drills,
and investing in resilient infrastructure.

Ecology

Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.
It encompasses the interactions among living organisms, including humans, and their physical
surroundings. This field of study examines how these interactions influence the distribution and
abundance of organisms, the flow of energy and matter through ecosystems, and the processes that
sustain biodiversity. Ecologists investigate various levels of organization, from individual
organisms to populations, communities, and ecosystems, to understand the complex web of life on
Earth. The term “ecology” was coined by the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel in the 19th century,
derived from the Greek word “oikos,” meaning “household” or "place to live"

Relevant Topics:

Topic Description
Natural Cycles and How ecosystems function over time, considering processes like
Rhythms seasons, breeding patterns, and nutrient cycles.
Community Development How different populations interact to form a functioning
and Structure ecosystem.
Interactions Between Predation, competition, symbiosis, and other relationships
Organisms between species.
Geographic Distributions How species are distributed across the planet and why they are
found in specific locations.
Populations The dynamics of populations, including size, growth, and
decline.

Challenges in Addressing Ecological Issues Related to Human Population Growth:

Challenge Explanation
Intrinsic Value of LifeThe view that all life is inherently good and death is inherently bad
can lead to resistance to population control measures.
Population and Concerns that rapid population growth hinders industrialization and
Development development.
Contraception and Difficulty in implementing birth control programs due to traditional
Culture family values in some regions.
Cost and Accessibility Birth control can be expensive and require widespread participation
for effectiveness.
Shifting Social Norms Changing traditional views on sexuality and family planning can be a
significant challenge.
Poverty and Desire for Poverty and lack of education can lead to resignation and acceptance
Change of high birth rates.
Population Explosion
 Population explosion refers to a sudden and rapid increase in the size of a population, often
resulting from a combination of high birth rates and declining death rates. This phenomenon can
lead to significant social, economic, and environmental challenges, as the resources available may
not be sufficient to support the growing population. Historically, population explosions have been
driven by technological and medical advancements that reduce mortality rates, while cultural
factors may encourage high fertility rates. For example, the global population grew from 1 billion
in 1803 to nearly 8 billion today, with significant increases occurring in the 20th century due to
improvements in healthcare and agriculture. This rapid growth can strain infrastructure, deplete
natural resources, and exacerbate issues such as poverty and environmental degradation.

Consequences and Need for Change:

Category Consequences Social Workers' Potential Role

Health and Increased fertility rates can impact Provide family planning counseling.
Well-Being maternal and child health. Strained Advocate for improved healthcare
family income and housing access. Support families facing
availability. Affected interpersonal economic hardships.
relationships within families.
Resource Increased demand for resources like Promote sustainable resource
Depletion food, water, and air management. Educate communities on
environmental conservation.
Economic Pressure on economic stability due to Advocate for economic policies that
Strain resource limitations and increased address inequality. Support job
demand for services. creation and economic development
initiatives.
Social Potential educational challenges due to Advocate for improved education
Impact population pressure. Influenced access and quality. Promote social
political factors. Impacted emigration justice and equity. Assist individuals
and immigration patterns. Affected and families affected by migration.
overall societal structure and well- Support community development
being. initiatives.
Need for New values and behaviors are needed Educate and raise awareness about
Change to address population concerns. population issues. Facilitate
community engagement and dialogue.

Industrialization/Modernization

Industrialization refers to the process of transforming an economy from primarily agrarian

and manual labor-based to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. This shift
involves the widespread adoption of mechanized production methods, leading to significant
changes in social, economic, and cultural structures. Industrialization typically results in
urbanization, as people move from rural areas to cities in search of employment opportunities in
factories and industries. Modernization, on the other hand, is the broader transformation from a
traditional, rural, agrarian society to a secular, urban, industrial society. It encompasses not only
economic changes but also profound shifts in social, political, and cultural aspects of life.
Modernization involves the adoption of new technologies, improved transportation and
communication systems, and a focus on technical rationality and efficiency. It also includes the
globalization of culture and the rise of the digital age

Impact on Family:

Feature Impact
Improved transportation Increased geographic mobility of family members. Easier
and communication communication across distances.
Focus on technical Shift towards individual achievement and career goals. Less
rationality and efficiency emphasis on traditional family roles.
Globalization of culture Exposure to diverse values and lifestyles Increased individualism
and social media and consumerism.
Rise of the digital age Changes in communication patterns and social interactions
and the internet Potential for both strengthening and weakening family bonds
Increased focus on Challenges to traditional gender roles and family structures.
 human rights Greater emphasis on individual rights and choices.
Industrialization Shift from manual labor to machines. Changes in family structure
and relations.
Combined Effects Favorable attitude towards working women. Shifting family roles.
Weaker paternal authority. Reduced family influence. More
permissive norms. Breakdown of extended families.

COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE

Stages of Courtship

Stage Description
Dating Getting to know a potential partner casually.
Going Steady Dating one person exclusively.
Private A mutual agreement between partners for marriage, often without
Understanding public announcement.
Engagement A public announcement of an intention to marry.

Marriage, Human Sexuality, and Sex Education:

Marriage is a formal union between two individuals recognized by society and law. This
union often involves a public ceremony or ritual, and it carries with it specific expectations and
responsibilities for the married couple.

These expectations can vary across different cultures and societies, but they generally include:
• Legal Rights and Obligations: Married couples often acquire legal rights and obligations,
such as the right to inherit property from each other, the right to make medical decisions for
their spouse, and the obligation to support each other financially.
• Social Roles and Expectations: Society often has expectations for the roles and
responsibilities of married individuals. These can include expectations related to household
duties, childcare, financial support, and emotional support.
• Religious and Cultural Traditions: Marriage often has religious and cultural significance. It
may be seen as a sacred union or as a way to fulfill social and familial obligations.

Marital Adjustments
A successful marriage requires ongoing effort and adjustment from both partners. The
following are some key factors that contribute to marital success:
• Understanding Each Other's Personalities: Each individual has unique personality traits and
preferences. Understanding and accepting these differences is essential for a healthy
relationship.
• Respecting Each Other's Individuality: It's important to respect your partner's individuality
and allow them to pursue their own interests and goals.
• Open Communication: Effective communication is crucial for resolving conflicts, sharing
feelings, and building intimacy.
• Fidelity: Fidelity is often considered a fundamental aspect of marriage. It involves being
faithful to your partner emotionally and physically.

Love based on Different cultures have varying norms and expectations. These cultural
differences can impact how individuals express and perceive love. For example, some cultures
may emphasize public displays of affection, while others may prefer more private expressions.
Mature love is characterized by a deep emotional connection, mutual respect, and a sense of shared
identity. It involves a willingness to compromise, support, and care for one another. Mature love
can provide a strong foundation for a healthy and fulfilling relationship.

Differences in sexual desires, preferences, or experiences can lead to conflict within a

relationship if they are not discussed openly and honestly. It is important for partners to
communicate their needs and expectations regarding sex to ensure compatibility and avoid
misunderstandings. Sexuality is a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social
factors. It involves physical sensations, emotions, and cognitive processes. Sex is a natural and
essential part of being human. While love and sex are often connected, they are not the same thing.
Love is a deep emotional bond, while sex is a physical act. It is possible to experience love without
engaging in sexual activity, and vice versa. However, for many people, love and sex can enhance
and enrich their relationship.

Human Sexuality is a complex aspect of human identity that encompasses more than just
physical intimacy. It includes a person's gender identity, sexual orientation, body image, values,
and beliefs. Sexuality influences how individuals interact with others, express themselves, and
experience the world. It can affect their relationships, career choices, and overall well-being.
Sexuality is an integral part of life at all stages, not limited to adolescence or adulthood. Healthy
sexual development requires self-acceptance and comfort with one's sexuality. Developing a
positive relationship with one's sexuality involves valuing oneself as a sexual being, embracing
body positivity, and being comfortable with one's own desires and preferences.

Sex Education helps individuals develop a positive and healthy understanding of their own
sexuality. It can help them to feel comfortable with their bodies, make informed decisions about
their sexual health, and develop healthy relationships. It help individuals understand the
importance of consent, communication, and respect in sexual relationships. It can also help them
to develop healthy relationships with their partners and avoid harmful behaviors. Parents play a
crucial role in providing sex education to their children. Open and honest communication about
sexuality can help children develop a healthy understanding of their bodies, relationships, and
sexual health.

Parenthood:

Parenthood is the state or experience of having and raising children. It involves a range of
responsibilities and roles, including providing physical care, emotional support, and guidance to
children as they grow and develop. Parenthood is not only a biological relationship but also a social
and legal one, encompassing the duties and rights of parents to nurture and protect their children.
This role can be fulfilled by biological parents, adoptive parents, or guardians, and it is recognized
and regulated by societal norms and laws to ensure the well-being of children.

Childrearing practices:

While historical records often focus on public events and significant figures, there is a lack
of detailed information about everyday childrearing practices. This makes it challenging to fully
understand the nuances of historical parenting styles and their evolution over time. Over the
centuries, societal attitudes towards children have undergone significant changes. For example,
the prevalence of child abuse has decreased, reflecting a growing recognition of children's rights
and the importance of nurturing environments. Additionally, there has been a shift towards more
empathetic and supportive parenting approaches. The psychogenic theory proposes that the way
parents interact with their children is influenced by their own childhood experiences. As adults,
parents may regress to a child-like state when parenting, leading to a more positive and nurturing
experience for their children compared to their own. This suggests that the cycle of parenting can
be self-perpetuating, with each generation potentially improving upon the previous one.

Parent Child Reactions:

Projective:
In projective reactions, parents project their own emotions, fears, or unresolved issues onto their
child. This means they might interpret the child’s behavior or emotions through the lens of their
own experiences. This can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunications. The child may feel
misunderstood or pressured to conform to the parent’s expectations, which can affect their self-
esteem and emotional development.

Reversal Reactions;
Reversal reactions occur when parents expect their child to take on a caregiving role, reversing the
typical parent-child dynamic. This might happen in situations where the parent is emotionally or
physically unavailable. Children in this situation may develop a heightened sense of responsibility
and maturity at an early age, but they might also struggle with anxiety, stress, and a lack of proper
childhood experiences.
Empathic Reactions:
Empathic reactions involve parents responding to their child’s emotions with understanding and
compassion. They actively listen, validate the child’s feelings, and provide appropriate support.
This type of reaction fosters a secure attachment, emotional intelligence, and healthy social
relationships. Children learn to trust their emotions and develop strong coping mechanisms.

Modes of Childrearing

Mode Period Dominant Reactions Key Characteristics

Infanticide Antiquity to 4th Projective, Reversal Infanticide, extreme sexual abuse,
century A.D. lack of legal or moral objection
Abandonment 4th to 13th Projective, Reversal Abandonment (selling, fostering,
century (diminishing) emotional), severe beatings, child
labor
Ambivalent 14th to 17th Projective, Reversal Physical restraint, beatings,
century (lessening) swaddling, lack of emotional
connection
Intrusive 18th century Reduced Projection, Mental control, threats, guilt, less
Emergent Empathy physical abuse, improved child
care
Socializing 19th century to Empathic Training, guiding, socializing,
present positive father involvement
Helping Mid-20th Extreme Empathy Child-centered, minimal
century to discipline, parental servitude
present

Child-Rearing Practices in the Philippines

Goals of Socialization:
• Rural: Respect, obedience, strong family identification, good neighborliness, reciprocity, and
economic improvement.
• Urban: Unaggressive, respectful, obedient, self-reliant individuals.
• Ideal Filipino Child: Excellent interpersonal skills, achievement, self-reliance, and industry.

Childcare Practices:
• Children as Investments: Seen as economic assets and blessings from God.
• Prenatal Practices: Taboo foods avoided to prevent birth defects.
• Pregnancy Beliefs: Mother and child seen as vulnerable to supernatural beings.
• Feeding: On-demand feeding for babies.
• Toilet Training: Starts at 10-15 months, lasting up to 2 years.

Child-Rearing Techniques:
• Discipline: Stricter for older children. Parental authority emphasized.
• Punishment: More common than rewards.
• Positive Reinforcement: Affectionate gestures for good behavior.
• Gender Roles: Boys - economically useful, Girls - domestic chores (rural/lower-income
urban).
• Freedom and Responsibility: Boys - more freedom, Girls - more responsibility
•
Other Considerations:
• Parental roles, emotional adjustments, timing of childbirth, and physical safety precautions.
• Rearing methods individualized based on the child's nature.
• Dynamic parent-child relationship needed to address child's problems.
• Each child has unique potential.

External Influences:
• School, religious training, community standards, friends, and peers.
 THE FILIPINO FAMILY IN CRISIS
Dysfunctional Family

A dysfunctional family is one where negative behaviors disrupt healthy family

functioning. These behaviors can include:

• Abuse (physical, emotional): Constant neglect, threats, or violence by parents.

• Addiction: Parents struggling with substances (drugs, alcohol) or behaviors (gambling,
overeating) that negatively impact the family.
• Emotional Neglect: Withholding emotional support or affection from children.
• Authoritarian Control: Rigid rules and expectations with no room for flexibility.
• Exploitation: Using children to meet the adult's emotional or physical needs.

Consequences for Children:

1. Low Self-Esteem: Feeling worthless due to negative family dynamics.

2. Confusion: Experiencing reality differently than what's happening (e.g., parent denying a bad
event).
3. Emotional Withholding: Difficulty expressing or having feelings validated.
4. Unhealthy Attachments: Overly involved or distant parents create attachment issues.
5. Behavioral Problems: Acting out due to the dysfunctional environment.
6. Substance Abuse: Encouraged or allowed drug/alcohol use by parents.
7. Isolation: Restricted communication with other family members.

Other Causes of Family Dysfunction:

1. Financial Strain: Difficulty meeting financial needs creates stress and instability.
2. Domestic Violence: Physical or emotional abuse destroys trust and creates fear.
3. Addiction (general): Any addiction can lead to neglect and family problems.
4. Authoritarianism: Excessive control by one family member stifles others.
5. Religious Extremism: Rigid religious beliefs can create a suffocating environment.

There are many reasons a family can become dysfunctional. The severity of
dysfunctionality varies greatly between families. Dysfunctional family environments can have
lasting negative effects on children.

Family Disorganization

Family disorganization refers to a breakdown in family harmony, leading to conflict and

dysfunction. It manifests in various ways, with tensions arising between:
• Husband and wife
• Parents and children
• Children themselves

Causes:
Personal Factors:
• Romantic Fallacy: Unrealistic expectations of marriage based on romantic notions.
• Clashing Temperaments: Incompatibility in personality traits leading to friction.
• Philosophy of Life: Differences in core values and goals causing strain.
• Personal-Behaviour Patterns: Irritating habits and mannerisms creating tension.
• Psychopathic Personalities: Mental instability in a partner leading to abuse.

Impersonal Factors (Social and Cultural):

• Economic Tensions:
▪ Sheer poverty
▪ Business reverses
▪ Wife's economic independence or dependence
• Occupational Tensions: Dissatisfaction or instability in careers.
• Differences in Cultural Background: Difficulty adjusting due to cultural variations.
• Disparity in Age: Significant age difference leading to different interests.
• Ill-Health: Chronic illness causing strain on finances and emotional well-being.
• Parent-Child Relationships: Disagreements on child-rearing practices.
• Interference of In-Laws: Undue influence and criticism from parents-in-law.

Consequences:
• Marital conflict, separation, or divorce
• Emotional distress for family members
• Difficulty raising children in a healthy environment

Identification of Family Disorganization:

• Frequent arguments and hostility within the family
• Withdrawal or emotional disengagement of family members
• Neglect of household responsibilities and childcare
• Substance abuse or other destructive behaviors

Generation Gap

Generation gap is a difference in values and attitudes between one generation and another,
especially between young people and their parents. These differences stem from older and younger
people not understanding each other because of their differences in experiences, opinions, habits,
and behavior. Each generation must be different in order to meet the changed conditions of its
time, but many families continue to follow established customs and appear bewildered by the
pressures upon them to decide upon the necessary or desirable changes in their life patterns. The
increasing multitude of mothers who are employed outside the home are making the girl’s problem
of maturation more difficult.

Role Pressures and Strains

Role strain refers to the difficulty meeting the expectations of multiple social roles. This
can occur when individuals are juggling competing demands from work, family, and other
responsibilities. Role management strategies are techniques used to reduce role strain and
effectively balance these competing demands. For example, work-family conflict arises when
individuals struggle to reconcile the demands of their work and family lives. This can lead to stress,
burnout, and decreased job satisfaction.

Role Management Strategies:

1. Legitimate Excuse: Using a higher priority role as a reason to avoid a task (work setting
limitations).
2. Stalling: Delaying a task until pressure eases.
3. Compartmentalization: Limiting roles to specific contexts (e.g., work at office, family at
home).
4. Barriers Against Intrusion: Preventing others from adding to role demands (e.g.,
delegating appointments).
5. Reduce Responsibilities: Lowering standards or refusing additional tasks in a role.
6. Delegation: Assigning tasks to others.
7. Organization: Prioritizing tasks and completing the most important ones first.
8. Empathy: Building support with others in similar roles.

Work-Family Conflict:
• Tension between work and family obligations.
• Can be bi-directional (work-to-family & family-to-work).
• Examples: long work hours impacting childcare, family emergencies affecting work.
• Exacerbated by factors like lack of flexibility and social support.
• Leads to role strain, negative emotions, and health problems.

Single mothers often face significant role strain due to the combined responsibilities of
parenting and working. Balancing childcare, household chores, and a demanding career can be
overwhelming. This work-family conflict can lead to decreased job satisfaction, increased
absenteeism, and higher turnover rates among single mothers.
 SOCIAL PROCESSES IN THE GROUP AND COMMUNITY

Groups and Social Processes

A group is a collection of two or more individuals who interact with each other and are
guided by a set of shared norms. Social interaction, or interpersonal behavior, is the fundamental
characteristic that defines a social group. Within a group, individuals develop expectations of
proper behavior from each other based on their statuses and roles. Members of a group also have
a sense of identity and recognize their distinctness from outsiders. Social groups often have their
own sets of values and norms, which may or may not align with those of the larger society.

Social processes refer to the recurring patterns of social interaction that take place within
groups. These processes can describe specific patterns of interaction between individuals or
groups, as well as generalized sequences of social development or change. Understanding social
processes helps us to analyze and explain how groups function and evolve over time.

Basic Social Processes

Process Definition Examples

Cooperation A social process involving two or more parties Neighbors working
working together towards a common goal. It can together to clean up
be informal, formal, or symbiotic. their neighborhood.
Conflict A social process arising when opposing people or Workers protesting for
groups fail to cooperate and become better wages and
confrontational in a struggle for power or self- working conditions.
assertion. Conflict can be physical or non-violent.
Competition A social process where two or more persons or Companies competing
groups strive to attain the same objective. The for market share.
focus is primarily on the goal, not the competitor.
Competition can be personal or impersonal.

Derived Social Processes

Process Definition Examples

Accommodation Reducing conflict and maintaining Domination, truce, compromise,
peace. conciliation, arbitration, toleration
Assimilation Sharing common experiences, Blending of folkways, mores, and
sentiments, and goals, leading to unity. values.
Amalgamation Uniting different organizations to Intermarriage between different
create a new culture. ethnic groups.
Acculturation Borrowing and learning from other Cultural exchange and adaptation.
cultures without losing one's own
identity.

UNDERSTANDING THE GROUP BEHAVIOR

Group Qualities

1. A definable membership - refers to the membership which in itself is attached the meaning of
being a member of a particular group.
2. Group consciousness or a conscious identification - this refers to the constant awareness of
each group member about the qualities defining their other co-members of their group.
3. A sense of shared purpose - as a group, there is a common agenda or goal which each and
every one share as the reason for joining and why they gathered to form a particular group.
4. Interdependence in satisfaction of needs - in a group, each member is responsible of sharing
the needs of the other. Therefore, they interact to provide the individual needs which they are
in common as a group. They depend on one another in terms of fulfilling what is lacking in
them.
5. Interaction - refers to the constant communication and relationships built within each member
who joined the group. This does not happen for the sake of just communicating but instead, to
 perform fully the demands of being part of that group.
6. Ability to act in unitary manner - as a group, who is sharing a common purpose and goal, each
member also acts in a manner which they themselves are similar in the sense that there is a
common way of expressing the self of one another. This manner brings them to unity so as to
achieve the goals and purposes of the group they joined.

Properties of The Group

1. Background – refers to the composition of the group defining each member, the needed
preparations in forming the group, the inner thoughts of each member regarding their
expectation to one another, and the agreed plans of meeting.
2. Participation pattern – this pattern of participation can be either the leader only talking to
members or the leader talking with its members responding so as to share ideas to one another.
3. Communication – consists of verbal and non-verbal communication of ideas. This refers to the
manner of which each member connects to one another.
4. Atmosphere – this refers to the group’s social climate, defining the social environment that the
group has.
5. Standards or Code of Ethics – refers to what is accepted within the group. The has standards
in the actions to be made and morales that must be followed by each member.
6. Sociometric Pattern – this refers to the connection of each member along their journey as a
group. This includes friendship.
7. Structure organization – it may be either of the following: (1) visible organization structure All
members are involved in committees,members are appointed with position having certain roles
to perform (2) invisible organizations procedure involve arrangements of members according
to relative prestige, influence, power and seniority.
8. Procedures – refers to the set of standard means and modes of doing the things that must be
done.
9. Goals – refers to the group's arranged goals and accomplishments to be achieved afterwards.

Manner of Forming Groups

1. Deliberate Formation – in this formation type, the group is formed to achieve some goals and
objectives. Certain types of groups are:
• Work groups – in this type of group, each member is given work to accomplish with
efficiency in relation to the objectives set by the group.
• Problem-solving groups – the group works together to form a solution for a problem
believing that more heads are better than one.
• Social action groups – this group works to make actions to bring changes to the society by
setting influences in accordance with the goals of the group.
• Mediating groups – this type of groups is formed to serve as mediators to different
departments so as to build collaboratives and interaction with different groups sharing
common goals.
• Legislative groups – this type of group is formed to formulate rules, regulations, law,
policies.
• Client groups – this group believes that services to be offered can be more effective if done
by many individuals treating the client as groups as well.
2. Spontaneous Formation – members of this type of group joined with ecpectations of being
satisfied with what the group can provide for them in all aspects.
3. External Designation – refers to individuals that was considered group after being treated
homogenously according to their color, age, sex, height, weight, ability, education, religion,
ethnic group, etc.

Functions of Group Members

Group building and maintenance:

• Encouraging- Being friendly, warm, and responsive to others, praising others and their ideas,
and agreeing with and accepting the contributions of others. Encouraging group building
involves actively recommending ideas and asserting their worthiness in all communications. It
is important to understand that a good leader must be a good listener and that working together
is essential for success. Acceptance of others in the group and encourage them to take their
part as a group.
• Mediating- Entails helping a group come together as a cohesive and cooperative unit,
particularly in the face of disagreements or conflicts. It also entails creating an atmosphere
where honest communication, mutual respect, and trust are fostered from the beginning
Guiding a group through a developmental process, ensuring everyone can contribute their best.
• Gatekeeping- Everyone in the group has a voice. Gatekeeping facilitates the formation of
a cohesive group, but it also depends on how it is used. Participants are freely and openly
involved in the group’s decision-making. It can serve a functional purpose in organizing
and maintaining group cohesion. The key to managing gatekeeping is encouraging inclusivity
within the group, open communication, and shared responsibility. Manages the flow of
conversation in a group to achieve an appropriate balance so that all group members get to
participate in a meaningful way.
• Standard Setting- Expressing standards for the group in choosing its subject matter or
procedures, rules or conduct, and ethical values. Involves establishing and maintaining the
norms, expectations, and guidelines that govern the behavior and functioning of the group It
guarantees that the group will continue to function as a unit, adjusting to changes and settling
disputes amicably. Effective standard-setting involves encouraging inclusivity, striking a
balance between structure and flexibility, and routinely reviewing standards to make sure they
continue to be applicable and helpful to the group's goals. Set the standard for conduct and
helps influence the behavior of group members.
• Following- Accepting the group's direction and rather obligingly
opinions of others, acting as a listener during group discussions, and being a good listener.
Open to the suggestion of other members of a group, and accepting each one idea during group
discussion
• Relieving Tension- Sensitive to every personality present in a group, being funny in a given
situation, and using these qualities to manage the frustration level of the group. Fostering open
communication and addressing conflicts, groups can create an environment where tension is
managed constructively.

Non-Formal Roles Emanating from Self-Centered Behavior

• Blocking- Refers to behaviors that obstruct or hinder the group’s progress. The blocker
intentionally or unintentionally keeps things from getting done in the group.
• Aggression- Actions that are frightening, confrontational, or unpleasant and frequently stem
from selfish goals. When people put their own needs, wants, or opinions ahead of those of
others, upsetting the dynamics of the group and making cooperation difficult. Exhibit negative
behaviors such as putting other’s ideas down, attacking others personally when they feel
confronted or insecure, competing unnecessarily to “win” at the expense of others within the
group, and being outspoken to the point of distraction
• Seeking recognition- When people seek attention, recognition, or praise—often more than is
normal or appropriate. Recognition is more important to an individual than the group's
objectives as a whole.
• Special pleading- Happens when a person tries to make an exception for oneself and demands
to be treated differently from what is expected of the rest.
• Withdrawing- Entails retreating from involvement, whether through silence, disengagement
from activity, or disregard for obligations. Withdraws from social activities and only takes part
when compelled to. Don't typically engage in active listening. In the worst-case scenario, a
group member might completely quit going to meetings.
• Dominating- Constantly tries to dictate conversations, choices, and the general direction of the
group, frequently at the expense of other people's participation and cooperation.

Group Cohesiveness

It refers to the extent to which the group members feel connected and motivated to remain
within a group. It contributes group welfare, advancing its objectives, and participating in the
group’s activities. The discussion of group cohesiveness is based on scheme for analyzing group
cohesiveness.
 A Scheme for Analyzing Group Cohesiveness

Group Cohesiveness – results of all forces

acting on members to remain in the group;
Forces arise from
(A) Attractiveness of group and
(B) Attractiveness of alternative
memberships

Determinants of Group Consequences of Group

Cohesiveness Cohesiveness
• Member`s motive base attraction • Maintenance of membership
• Incentive properties of group • Power of a group over its members
• Expectancy concerning outcome • Participation and loyalty
• Comparison level • Personal consequences

Determinants:

1. Member`s Motive Base for Attraction- This refers to the individual’s reasons for joining a
group, such as the need for affiliation, recognition, security, money or shared values.

2. Incentive Properties of Group- These consist of the group goals, programs, style of operation,
prestige, and the characteristics of its members that are important to his motive base.

3. The Individual`s Expectancy Concerning Outcome- This refers to the individual`s perception
whether joining the group will lead to positive or negative results.

4. The Individual`s Comparison level- This is based on the individual`s expectations on their past
experiences. If the satisfaction from previous memberships increases, it will lead to higher
demands from new groups.

Consequences:

1. Maintenance of Membership- If a group is attractive to a member, by reasons of the different

factors, then he is likely to remain in the group.

2. Power of Group Over Members- The consequence of cohesiveness most thoroughly

investigated is the power that cohesiveness gives a group to influence its members.

3. Participation and Loyalty- Studies have shown that as cohesiveness increases, there is more
frequent communication among members, a greater degree of participation in group activities
and a lower rate of absences.

4. Personal security- There is evidence that cohesiveness has effects on the personal adjustment
of members.

5. Self-evaluation- Knowing one’s sense of personal worth

Characteristics:
▪ Cohesive groups consist of a smaller number of members.
▪ Members in cohesive teams share common interests or backgrounds.
▪ These groups hold a significant status within organizations.
▪ Regular recognition is given to cooperative behavior within cohesive groups.
▪ Cohesive teams boast a track record of past achievements.

Group Solidarity- Given the strong emphasis on group solidarity in the Philippines, conformity
to group norms is heavily rewarded while to deviate from them is to court strong social
disapproval.
Some mechanisms which support the system of social control are:

1. Technique discernible in group interaction like:

a. The commitment to pakikisama
b. The tendency to level an individual who is out of line
c. Gossip
2. The curbing of anti-social attitudes by disallowing privacy or by ascribing undesirable statuses
to deviants.

LEADERSHIP AND PERFORMANCE OF GROUP FUNCTIONS

Traits of a Leader

Tribe Essential Traits Additional Qualities

Bagobo Dexterity, morality, wisdom Role models, advisors, innovators, guides for
life events
Kalinga Wealth, industry, righteousness, Ability to influence people, maintain
magnetic bearing, bravery, justice, solidarity and unity
honesty, sincerity
General Facilitator, motivator, problem- Economically stable, reconciler, effective
solver speaker, active in community affairs, aligned
with group norms and values
New Performance of needed functions, -
View adaptability

Role Performance

One of the most studied aspect of group communication is leadership. It is essential to understand
that while a group may have only one official leader, other group members can still play significant
leadership roles. Recognizing this distinction helps us understand the difference between being a
leader and the concept of leadership. Leadership encompasses a complex mix of beliefs,
communication patterns, and behaviors influencing group dynamics and tasks. Individuals may
become leaders by participation and competence, without requiring formal acknowledgement.
Leaders can be designated (officially recognized) or emergent (arising through group interaction).

Leadership Styles
1. Autocratic: makes decisions independently while setting group agenda
2. Democratic: Encourages group input before decisions
3. Laissez-faire: offers minimal guidance and allows freedom in decision-making

Specific Leader Style

1. Directive- Provides clear expectations, structure, and guidance. Effective in new groups or
during crises. Directive leaders need strong motivation skills and should avoid
micromanaging experienced groups.
2. Participative- Involves group members in decision-making, improving cohesion and
members responsibility. Participative leaders enhance group norms and member`s trust while
also encouraging independence.
3. Supportive- Focuses on the well-being of group members. It fosters a positive climate and
provide constructive feedback. Supportive leaders maintain positive relations and
constructive criticism while boosting group morale.
4. Achievement-Oriented- Sets high standards and goals, motivating members to strive for
excellence. It is often associated with transformational leadership. It requires skilled group
members while building mutual respect and high expectations.
Power and Influence

Power is understood as the ability of a person, team, or organization to influence other

people and events.

One person has power over another if he can perform an act that will result in a change in the other

Resources The list of resources of interpersonal power usually include factors such
as wealth, prestige, skill, information, physical strength and the capacity
to meet ego needs such as recognition, affection, respect and
accomplishment.
Power motivation A person with resources can influence those who value those resources.
However, a person with few resources may find that trying to influence
others is generally not effective.
person. The source of interpersonal power has at least two components: (a) certain “properties” of
O, called resource of power, and (b) certain needs of values of P, the motive bases of power.

The decision whether to engage in an act of influence is determined and governed by these four
considerations:

(a) the net advantage to the individual performing the act,

(b) the consequences of the act for the group
(c) the subjective probability that the act will be successful and
(d) the prospect of being rewarded for fulfilling role expectations

The Person Subjected to Influence

Motive Base of Influence refers to conditions affecting a person’s willingness to be
influenced. This includes:

a. Desire to receive reward – reward power or avoid punishment (coercive power).

b. Desire to be like an admired person – referent power
c. Desire to abide by one’s values – appeal is made to values like fairness, generosity, honesty,
acceptance of authority structure (legitimate power)
d. Desire to correct – to have an accurate view of reality. If P views O as having special
knowledge or expertness, P attributes expert power to O. This may be due to O’s experience,
training, intelligence, reputation for credibility or special access to relevant information.
e. Group-oriented desires – when influence attempts are seen as instrumental to accomplishing
group goals or maintaining the group.
f. Intrinsic gratification – appreciates the change sought by O as desirable.

By Products of Power

Effects on the Person having Power:

• The high-power person is able to initiate activities, set the pace, and “call the changes” in the
interaction.
• The possession of power increases one’s sense of personal security and permits making plans
that extended farther into the future;
• Since powerful persons can readily have their own way, they may tend to be insensitive to the
needs of others.

Effects on the Person Subjected to Power

• The existence of a power relationship poses a threat to P and he seeks ways of defending
himself;
• The use of ingratiation, to induce powerful person to use his power in a benevolent way;
• Powerless people take actions to change the power relation itself – revolution or rebellion; and
Way to improve situation of little people:
a. Restrict the range of legitimate power (e.g., by legislation and collective bargaining);
b. Avoid social situations where superior may perform strong disagreeable act; and
c. Redistribute power by redistribution of resources (e.g., pooling of resources in a
concerted way, forming coalitions with others).
 The long-term effects on person consistently subjected to power by others: tendency to
become apathetic, submissive, and pessimistic or tendency to become hostile, angry, aggressive or
rebellious against authority.

Influence of Group on Individual Behavior

1. Individuals learning styles, speed of learning, and retention of learnt material, and the method
in which people solve problems are influenced by the group to which they belong and
participate.
2. The group influences an individual`s beliefs and establishes standards for norms in
responding to situations (predictable behavior reactions).
3. Group experience can alter an individual`s level of aspiration and effort. Individual goal
setting largely depends on group standards, and achieving this goals is related to how much
the entire group progresses toward them.
4. Group experience operates to modify the individual’s habits of living, working and carrying
on life’s pursuits (dominant group pattern setting).
5. Group experience has a powerful influence upon the individual’s perception of himself and
his role in a given situation (acquisition of self-insight and self-understanding).
6. Group tends to provide psychological support for individuals and helps them express
themselves positively and negatively (noticeable in his acceptance and adoption to life
situation)
7. In settings with alternatives, the group tends to influence the choices individuals make.
8. Group affect an individual’s speed, accuracy and productivity in work.
9. Group have strong effect upon an individual’s susceptibility to fear, frustration, and his
recovery from them is hastened because of the security giving function of the group.
10. Group tends to place limits on the individual’s drive for power and his need to be
controlling. (Resolve conflicts between authorities and dependence).

Social Control
All social groups have means of dealing with behavior that violates social norms. These
methods, taken together, are called social control (Meier, 1982). Social control refers to purposeful
attempts to modify behavior. Social control measures serve to promote adherence to norms. In
some situations, people conform to norms because they know of no alternative. In other situations,
they conform to gain some inducement to do so. These inducements may represent informal social
control mechanisms, such as ridicule, or actions of formal agencies such as the church or
government. Like a deviant event it seeks to limit, social control is a process.

Two Basic Process of Social Control

Internalization of Group Norms encourages Social reaction influences conformity through
conformity through socialization, so that external pressures in the form of sanctions
people know what society expects and desire from others in the event of anticipated or
to conform to that expectation (Scott, 1971). actual nonconformity to norms.

Internalization Processes
Social Control is achieved when individual`s learn and accept the norms of their group.
This process occurs through socialization, which motivates people to conform to these norms
without needing external pressures. Society does not need to actively enforce these norms because
they normally shape behavior and become part of cultural customs. People generally learn
mechanisms of social control, like customs, traditions, beliefs, attitudes, and values, through
prolonged interactions with others. Social control consists, in a sense, of processes teach how not
to engage rather than how to engage in deviant behavior.

Sanctioning Processes
Sanctions are social reactions to behavior. Sociologist sometimes classify them according
to their content. Social controls through external pressures include both negative and positive
sanctions.
a. Negative Sanction – is a punishment meant to discourage deviant conduct.
b. Positive Sanction – is a reward meant to encourage conduct that conforms to a norm.

Sociologist also classify sanctions according to their sources, that is, who supplies the reactions.
 a. Informal Sanctions – such as gossip, and ostracism, are unofficial actions of groups
or individuals.
b. Formal Sanctions – such as criminal penalties, are official group expressions meant
to convey collective sentiments.

THEORIES OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR (SMELSER`S)

Social Strain Theory was proposed by Neil Smelser. This was referred to by other
sociologist as the value-added theory, the most comprehensive way of explaining collective
behavior. It aims to explain whether collective behavior will occur. Smelser claimed that there are
six conditions that typically precede collective behavior. These conditions occur in sequence, each
creating a social environment that makes possible the occurrence of the next.

Factors Contributing to Collective Behavior

Factor Definition Example

Structural Pre-existing social conditions A widely watched television news
Conduciveness that facilitate collective broadcast that ignites public outrage.
behavior.
Social Strain Tensions or imbalances within Economic inequality, social injustice,
society that create or natural disasters.
dissatisfaction and unrest.
Generalized Belief Shared interpretations of the A widespread belief that a government
problem that justify collective is corrupt or unresponsive.
action.
Precipitating Specific events that trigger A police brutality incident that sparks
Events collective action. protests against racial injustice.
Mobilization of The organization and Social media platforms used to
Participants coordination of people to mobilize supporters and organize
participate in collective protests.
behavior.
Breakdown of A decline in the ability of A government's failure to address
Social Control authorities to control or public grievances leading to increased
suppress collective action. defiance and civil disobedience.

Smelser argues that these conditions must occur in sequence and build upon each other for
collective behavior to materialize. This theory offers a valuable tool for analyzing and
understanding various forms of collective action, from riots and protests to social movements.
Each of these six conditions is considered necessary for the occurrence of collective behavior, and
together, they are regarded as sufficient. Although these six determinants are necessary and
sufficient for all types of collective behavior, the specific combinations and variations of these
determinants influence whether the resulting behavior will be a craze, a panic, a hostile outburst,
or a social movement.
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWER WITH THEIR RATIONALES

1. Which of the following statements best describes the challenge in understanding historical
childrearing practices?

a) Historical records primarily focus on public events and significant figures, neglecting everyday
childrearing practices.
b) The lack of written documentation makes it impossible to reconstruct historical parenting styles.
c) Historical accounts are biased towards idealized representations of parenting.
d) The evolution of childrearing practices is too complex to be understood through historical
analysis.

Answer: (a)
Rationale: The passage explicitly states that historical records often overlook everyday
childrearing practices, making it difficult to fully comprehend the nuances of historical parenting
styles.

2. What is the psychogenic theory's main proposition regarding parenting?

a) Parents' childrearing practices are solely determined by their genetic predisposition.

b) Cultural norms and societal expectations heavily influence parenting styles.
c) Parents' interactions with their children are shaped by their own childhood experiences.
d) The development of a child's personality is primarily influenced by their environment.

Answer: (c)
Rationale: The psychogenic theory emphasizes that parents tend to regress to a child-like state
when parenting, reflecting the impact of their own upbringing on their parenting style.

3. In projective reactions, parents are likely to:

a) Emphasize their child's strengths and encourage their individuality.
b) Interpret their child's behavior through the lens of their own past experiences.
c) Provide unconditional love and support, regardless of their child's actions.
d) Foster a sense of independence and autonomy in their child.

Answer: (b)
Rationale: Projective reactions involve parents projecting their own unresolved issues onto their
children, leading to misinterpretations and misunderstandings.

4. Which of the following is a potential consequence of reversal reactions in parenting?

a) Children may develop a strong sense of self-reliance and independence.
b) Children may experience a lack of proper childhood experiences due to taking on a caregiving
role.
c) Children may develop a healthy sense of boundaries and emotional maturity.
d) Children may feel empowered and supported in their emotional development.

Answer: (b)
Rationale: Reversal reactions occur when parents rely on their children for emotional or physical
support, causing children to miss out on typical childhood experiences and potentially leading to
stress and anxiety.

5. Empathic reactions in parenting are characterized by:

a) Ignoring a child's emotions and focusing on practical solutions.

b) Responding to a child's emotions with understanding and compassion.
c) Enforcing strict rules and discipline to ensure a child's obedience.
d) Projecting their own fears and anxieties onto their child.

Answer: (b)
Rationale: Empathic reactions involve parents actively listening, validating their child's feelings,
and providing appropriate support, fostering a secure attachment and emotional intelligence.

6. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a dysfunctional family?

a) Parents struggling with substance abuse.
b) Parents consistently providing emotional support and affection.
c) Parents imposing rigid rules and expectations with little flexibility.
d) Parents using children to meet their own emotional or physical needs.

Answer: (b) Parents consistently providing emotional support and affection.

Rationale: A dysfunctional family is characterized by negative behaviors that disrupt healthy
functioning. While options a), c), and d) all describe behaviors that contribute to dysfunction,
option b) describes a healthy and supportive family dynamic. Dysfunctional families often lack
emotional support and affection, leading to negative consequences for children.

7. Which of the following is an example of emotional neglect in a dysfunctional family?

a) A parent physically abusing their child.
b) A parent constantly criticizing their child's appearance.
c) A parent refusing to acknowledge or validate their child's feelings.
d) A parent forcing their child to participate in activities they don't enjoy.

Answer: (c) A parent refusing to acknowledge or validate their child's feelings.

Rationale: Emotional neglect involves withholding emotional support and affection, which can
have a profound impact on a child's emotional development. Option c) directly demonstrates this
by describing a parent's refusal to acknowledge or validate their child's feelings, creating an
environment where the child feels unseen and unheard. While options a) and b) represent forms of
abuse, option d) might be considered controlling or authoritarian but doesn't directly address the
core concept of emotional neglect.

8. A nurse is feeling overwhelmed by the demands of her job and her family responsibilities. She
decides to create a strict schedule, prioritizing urgent tasks and delegating less critical ones to
colleagues. Which role management strategy is she primarily using?
a) Legitimate Excuse
b) Compartmentalization
c) Barriers Against Intrusion
d) Organization

Answer: (d) Organization.

Rationale: The nurse is actively managing her time and responsibilities by prioritizing tasks and
delegating, which are key components of effective organization. The other options are not directly
relevant to the scenario:
- Legitimate Excuse: This involves using a higher priority role as a reason to avoid a task, which
is not described in the scenario.
- Compartmentalization: This involves separating roles into specific contexts, which is not
mentioned in the scenario.
- Barriers Against Intrusion: This involves preventing others from adding to role demands, which
is not the nurse's primary focus.

9. A single mother is struggling to balance her demanding job as a lawyer with her responsibilities
as a parent. She often feels exhausted and stressed, leading to difficulty concentrating at work.
This situation is an example of:

a) Work-to-family conflict
b) Family-to-work conflict
c) Role strain
d) All of the above

Answer: (d) All of the above.

Rationale: The scenario describes a classic case of work-to-family conflict, where work demands
(long hours, stress) negatively impact family life. This conflict also contributes to role strain, the
difficulty in fulfilling multiple roles effectively. The single mother's exhaustion and stress further
exacerbate the situation, leading to negative emotions and potential health problems.

10.Which of the following is NOT a factor that can exacerbate work-family conflict?

a) Flexible work arrangements

b) Lack of social support
c) Long work hours
d) Unpredictable work schedules

Answer: (a) Flexible work arrangements

Rationale: Flexible work arrangements, such as telecommuting or flexible hours, can actually help
reduce work-family conflict by providing greater control over work schedules and allowing for
better integration of work and family life. The other options (b, c, and d) are all factors that can
contribute to work-family conflict:
- Lack of social support: Limited support from family, friends, or colleagues can make it harder
to manage work and family responsibilities.
- Long work hours: Extended work hours can directly interfere with time spent with family.
- Unpredictable work schedules: Inconsistent work schedules can make it difficult to plan and
manage family commitments.

11. Which of the following exemplifies member`s motive base for attraction in the determinants
of group cohesiveness?
a. A member joined the group because he will receive a plaque of recognition for it.
b. A member frequently makes his past group’s performance as standard in his new group.
c. This refers to the individual`s perception whether joining the group will lead to positive or
negative results.
d. These consist of the group goals, programs, style of operation, prestige, and the characteristics
of its members that are important to his motive base.

Answer: (a) A member joined the group because he will receive a plaque of recognition for it.

Rationale: Member`s Motive Base for Attraction refers to the individual’s reasons for joining a
group, such as the need for affiliation, recognition, security, money or shared values. Since the
member is joining for recognition, it goes along with “motive base.”

12. What is a negative sanction in the context of social control?

a. A punishment meant to discourage deviant behavior
b. A reward meant to encourage desired behavior
c. A method for encouraging more group participation
d. A formal recognition of an individual`s achievements

Answer: a. A punishment meant to discourage deviant behavior

Rationale: A negative sanction is a punishment aimed at discouraging behavior that violates group
norms.

13. Family decisions always come from the father in a nuclear family. Which of the following
family authority best fit the situation?
a. Matricentric Family
b. Matriarchal Family
c. Equalitarian Family
d. Patriarchal Family
Answer: d. Patriarchal Family

Rationale: Patriarchal Family is one in which authority is vested in the oldest male member, often
the father or grandfather, or in the absence of parents, on the oldest male member. Therefore, the
situation is patriarchal because authority (decision making in that context) is with the father.

14. Neighbors working together in a clean up drive activity against dengue outbreak is what type
of Basic Social Process?
a. competition
b. conflict
c. cooperation
d. assimilation

Answer: c. cooperation

Rationale: Cooperation is social process involving two or more parties working together towards
a common goal. It can be informal, formal, or symbiotic. The activity shows “cooperation” since
the neighbors worked together to achieve “a dengue free barangay.”

15. A mother just had a baby for the first time in her life. Because of lack of experience in
motherhood, delays in attending to her child’s cry have become frequent. Which stage of the
Psychosexual Development is related to the problem that may arise with the child’s development?
a. Integrity vs. Despair
b. Trust vs. Mistrust
c. Intimacy vs. Isolation
d. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Answer: b. Trust vs. Mistrust

Rationale: Trust vs. Mistrust is the first stage an infant experience. During this stage, the kid
depends on adult caregivers for all they require to survive at this stage of development, including
food, love, warmth, safety, and nurture. If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel
safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care, thus the situation mentioned
above.

16. What is a positive sanction in social control?

a. A punishment intended to reduce deviant behavior
b. A reward meant to encourage behavior that conforms to norms
c. A method for limiting group influence over its members
d. Unofficial actions of groups or individuals

Answer: b. A reward meant to encourage behavior that conforms to norms.

Rationale: Positive sanctions are rewards meant to encourage conduct that aligns with group
norms.

17. A child is repeatedly praised and rewarded for practicing his piano skills diligently, which
encourages him to continue practicing to improve his performance. Which determinant of behavior
is being displayed?
a. environment
b. heredity
c. training
d. libido

Answer: c. Training
Rationale: Training is basically learning and it may be defined as any change in behavior which
occurs as a result of experience or practice. This learning process involves important factors like
association ideas, sensations; stimulus – response and motivation. The child is basivally training
to improve his skills and attitude while playing the piano.

17. An organization conducted a tree planting activity to be participated mandatorily by all the
members. One member requested to be excused from the activity for no valid reason at all. What
Non-Formal Roles Emanating from Self-Centered Behavior is being demonstrated?
a. Blocking
b. Aggression
c. Seeking recognition
d. Special pleading- Happens when a person tries to make an exception for oneself and demands
to be treated differently from what is expected of the rest.
Answer: d. Special Pleading
Rationale: Special pleading happens when a person tries to make an exception for oneself and
demands to be treated differently from what is expected of the rest. With this, since the member
requested to be exempted from the activity, she showed special pleading

18. The Carlos Yulo family feud gathered different reactions in social media. One in which the
older generations sided with the mother saying the child should still respect the mother despite any
given circumstances. And the younger generations siding with Carlos Yulo, believing that he is in
the right age to decide for himself. What is being exhibited?
a. Role Pressures and Strains
b.Generation Gap
c.Family Disorganization
d.Family Dysfunction
Answer: b. Generation Gap
Rationale: Generation gap is a difference in values and attitudes between one generation and
another, especially between young people and their parents. These differences stem from older and
younger people not understanding each other because of their differences in experiences, opinions,
habits, and behavior. Therefore, the passage above is generation gap for the fact that there are
different opinions between the younger and older generation.

19. This specific leader style fosters a positive climate and provide constructive feedback.
a.Directive
b. Participative
c. Supportive.
d. Achievement-Oriented
Answer: c. Supportive
Rationale: focuses on the well-being of group members. It fosters a positive climate and provide
constructive feedback. Supportive leaders maintain positive relations and constructive criticism
while boosting group morale.
20. A negative behavior that disrupts healthy family functioning which is very common in the
Philippines which is under addiction.
a. abusing cildren
b. child labor
c. lack of emotional support
d. gambling in “sabongan”
Answer: d. gambling in “sabongan”
Rationale: Addiction refers to parents struggling with substances (drugs, alcohol) or behaviors
(gambling, overeating) that negatively impact the family.

21. Type of family marriage where the woman is allowed to have several marriages.
a. Monogamy
b.Polygamy
c.Polyandry
d.Polygyny
Answer: c. Polyandry
Rationale: Polyandry is one woman practicing marriage with two or more men.

22. “Pagmamano” is a traditional gesture of respect where younger people take the hand of an
elder and place it on their forehead. It's a sign of respect and a way to ask for blessings from elders.
What type of cultural variable is being shown?
a. Mores
b. Folkways
c. Language
d. Customs
Answer: b. Folkways
Rationale: Folkways are those types of behavior that are organized and repetitive. The folkways
of a group are the behavior patterns of everyday life. Pagmamano is a type of Folkway since it has
been passed down from generation to generation and we still practice it everyday until now.

23. It is the common form of accommodation without formal agreement.

a.Dominaton
b.Truce
c.Compromise
d.Toleration
Answer: d. Toleration
Rationale: Toleration is form of accommodation without formal agreement that allowing
individuals or groups to put up with each other without trying to modify others behavior.

24. “Poverty, combined with ignorance, breeds that lack of desire for better things (wantlessness),
hence the resigned acceptance of a subhuman plot” is one out of six problems that arises from the
politics of what Physical Factor that influences Filipino Family?
a. Ecology
b. Environmental Changes
c. Population Explosion
d. Industrialization
Answer: a. Ecology
Rationale: The branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their
environment especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development
and structure, interaction between different kinds of organisms, geographic distributions and
populations. The statement is under community development and populations.

25. Dating, going steady, private understanding, and engagement are stages of what process?
a. Marriage
b. Human Sexuality
c. Courtship
d. Parenthood
Answer: c. Courtship
Rationale: Courtship is a social process engaged in by two individuals. It is a form of behavior
seeking to win the consent of another for marriage. It is a progressive commitment leading to a
succession of event towards the development of stable interpersonal relationships. Most significant
is the development of love and affection. Courtship is a process which undergoes various stages,
which are: dating, going steady, private understanding, and engagement.
References:
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The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion. GCF Books.: Eugenio, D. L. (2007).
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