WHAT IS STATISTICS?

- is the branch of mathematics which deals with the collection, organization and interpretation of data.
Note: STATISTIC refers to a numerical datum.

Statistics is a specialized field within mathematics that revolves around the careful handling of
data. It encompasses a series of methods and techniques aimed at collecting, arranging,
analyzing, and making sense of data. The ultimate goal is to extract meaningful insights,
patterns, and information from the data, which can aid in making informed decisions and
drawing valid conclusions.

Collection: This involves gathering data from various sources, be it observations, surveys, experiments,
or other means. It's like assembling puzzle pieces to create a complete picture.

Organization: Once you have the data, it's important to organize it in a systematic manner. This could
involve creating tables, charts, graphs, or other visual representations that help reveal trends and
relationships.

Interpretation: This is where the real magic happens. Statistics provides tools to analyze the organized
data, uncovering insights that might not be immediately apparent. It allows you to draw meaningful
conclusions, test hypotheses, and make predictions.

The term "statistic" specifically refers to individual numerical values derived from data. These values
could be things like averages, percentages, correlations, and more. They are like the building blocks
used to construct a deeper understanding of the data.

In essence, statistics transforms raw data into valuable information. It's like a toolkit that equips
us with techniques to navigate through the vast sea of information, enabling us to make sense of
it, draw conclusions, and inform decisions with a degree of confidence.

USES OF STATISTICS
1. -It summarizes data for public use.
2. It aids in decision making:
-Provides comparison
-Explains action that has taken place
-Justifies a claim or assertion
-Predicts future outcome
-Estimates unknown quantities
1. Summarizing Data for Public Use:
Statistics plays a crucial role in presenting complex data in an understandable and concise manner for
the public. This can involve creating charts, graphs, and summaries that help people grasp the key
points without getting lost in the details. For example, when news outlets share unemployment rates or
election poll results, they're essentially using statistics to convey information clearly.

2. Aiding in Decision Making:

Statistics is a powerful tool for decision-making in various fields.

Providing Comparison: By analyzing data from different sources, you can compare options or
scenarios and determine which one is more favorable based on evidence rather than assumptions.

Explaining Past Actions: By examining historical data, you can understand the factors that led to
certain outcomes. This helps in learning from past mistakes and successes.

Justifying Claims: Statistics provides evidence to support claims or assertions. If a company claims
their product is the best-selling, they can back it up with sales data.

Predicting Future Outcomes: Analyzing trends and patterns in historical data allows us to make
educated guesses about what might happen in the future. Weather forecasts and economic predictions
are examples of this.

Estimating Unknown Quantities: Sometimes we can't measure everything directly, but statistics allows
us to estimate these unknowns. For instance, pollsters use a sample of voters to estimate how an entire
population will vote.

In all these cases, statistics gives us a way to analyze information, uncover insights, and make
more informed choices. It's like having a reliable compass to navigate through uncertainty,
whether you're a business executive, a researcher, a policymaker, or anyone else facing
decisions based on data.

FIELDS OF STATISTICS
STATISTICAL METHODS OF APPLIED STATISTICS
- It refers to procedures and technique in the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

FIELDS OF STATISTICS:
Statistics is a vast field that's divided into different specialized areas, each focusing on a specific aspect
of data analysis and interpretation.
Descriptive Statistics: This field deals with summarizing and describing data in a simple and
meaningful way. It's about turning raw data into understandable information by using measures like
averages, percentages, and charts.

Inferential Statistics: This area is concerned with drawing conclusions and making predictions about a
larger group (population) based on a smaller sample of data. It involves techniques like hypothesis
testing and confidence intervals.

Biostatistics and Medical Statistics: These fields involve applying statistical methods to data from
medical research, clinical trials, and health studies. The goal is to understand health-related patterns,
outcomes, and effectiveness of treatments.

Econometrics: In this field, statistical methods are used to analyze economic data, model economic
relationships, and make predictions about economic trends and policies.

Social Statistics: Social statistics deals with data related to society and human behavior. This can
include demographics, education, crime rates, and public opinion.

Business Statistics: This area applies statistical techniques to business-related data to aid decision-
making. It's used for market analysis, forecasting sales, quality control, and operational optimization.

Environmental Statistics: Environmental statisticians analyze data related to environmental issues

such as pollution levels, climate change, and natural resource management.

STATISTICAL METHODS OF APPLIED STATISTICS:

Applied statistics involves using statistical techniques to solve practical problems in various fields. The
process can be broken down into several steps:

Data Collection: Applied statisticians gather relevant data through methods like surveys, experiments,
or observations.

Data Presentation: Once collected, data needs to be organized and presented in a clear and visual
way. Graphs, charts, and tables are common tools for this.

Data Analysis: Statistical methods are used to analyze the data. This could involve calculating
averages, finding relationships between variables, and running more complex analyses like regression.

Data Interpretation: After analysis, the results need to be interpreted. This involves explaining what the
data is telling us and what conclusions can be drawn.
Applied statistics can be found everywhere. For instance, in the medical field, statisticians might
analyze clinical trial results to determine the effectiveness of a new drug. In marketing, they
could use data to understand consumer behavior and tailor advertising strategies. The key is
using statistical tools to turn data into actionable insights in order to make informed decisions.

STATISTICAL THEORY OF MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS

- It deals with the development and exposition of theories that serve as bases of statistical methods.

STATISTICAL THEORY OF MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS:

This term refers to a significant aspect of statistics that's focused on building the theoretical foundation
for various statistical methods and techniques. It's the study of the underlying principles and
mathematical framework that support the tools statisticians use to analyze data.

Mathematical Framework: At the heart of this theory is mathematics. It uses mathematical concepts to
build a logical framework for statistical methods. Probability theory is a significant part of this, helping us
understand how likely different outcomes are in uncertain situations.

Theory Behind the Methods: When you use a statistical method, like testing if two groups are really
different, there's a theory behind why that method works. This theory tells you what assumptions you
need to make, what conditions should be met, and how to interpret the results.

Validity and Reliability: Just like you want your tools to be sturdy and dependable, the theory ensures
that the statistical methods are valid and reliable. It ensures that the methods provide accurate answers
and don't mislead us due to chance or bias.

Assumptions and Limitations: Every method has its strengths and weaknesses. The theory lays out
what assumptions the method relies on and what situations it might not work well for. This helps users
understand when a particular method is appropriate and when it might be less reliable.

Statistical Inference: This theory also deals with a fundamental concept in statistics – inference.
Inference is about making conclusions about a whole group (population) based on a smaller part
(sample). The theory explains how to make these conclusions while considering uncertainty.

Real-World Impact:

In practical terms, this theory ensures that statistical analysis is not just a set of arbitrary steps. It
provides a solid foundation for why and how statistical methods work. When statisticians analyze data,
they're not just following a recipe blindly; they're applying tools that have been rigorously tested and
proven.
Analogy:
Think of it like learning to drive a car. The rules of the road and the mechanics of the car are the
theory. They ensure you know when to use signals, how to stop at intersections, and what to do
in different weather conditions. Similarly, the statistical theory of mathematical statistics guides
statisticians on how to navigate the data analysis landscape, making well-informed choices and
drawing valid conclusions.

DESCRIPTIVE VS. INFERENTIAL

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
- organization, classification, and presentation of collected data.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
- making decisions based on sample data.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:
Descriptive statistics is like taking a snapshot of data. It's all about summarizing and presenting
information in a clear and organized way. Imagine you're holding a handful of different colored marbles.
Descriptive statistics helps you sort them, count them, and create a visual representation of how many of
each color you have.

Key Points:
Organization: Descriptive statistics organizes raw data. It calculates measures like averages, medians,
and modes to give you a general sense of what the data looks like as a whole.

Classification: It groups data into categories, like grouping marbles by color. This makes it easier to
understand patterns and relationships.

Presentation: Descriptive statistics uses graphs, charts, and tables to visually communicate
information. Just like using a bar chart to show how many red, blue, and green marbles you have.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:
Now, imagine you have a huge jar of marbles, and you want to figure out what the jar is like based on a
handful you've taken out. That's where inferential statistics comes in. It's like making educated guesses
or inferences about the whole jar of marbles based on your small sample.

Key Points:
Making Decisions: Inferential statistics helps you make decisions or draw conclusions about a larger
group (population) based on a smaller part (sample) of that group.
Sample Data: Instead of analyzing all the marbles, you might analyze a few marbles to understand
something about the entire jar. For instance, you might estimate the average size of marbles in the
whole jar based on the sizes of marbles in your sample.

Uncertainty: Because you're working with a sample, there's always a degree of uncertainty. Inferential
statistics provides tools to quantify this uncertainty and express it as confidence intervals or probabilities.

In essence, while descriptive statistics gives you a clear look at what you have, inferential
statistics helps you make educated guesses about things you can't directly measure – like the
characteristics of the entire jar of marbles based on the few you've seen.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS EXAMPLE:

Imagine you have data on the ages of a group of students: 18, 20, 22, 21, 19. You want to understand
the basic characteristics of these ages.

Average (Mean): Adding up the ages and dividing by the number of students gives you an average age
of (18 + 20 + 22 + 21 + 19) / 5 = 20 years.
Median: The middle value when the ages are arranged in order is 20, which is also the median.
Mode: There's no repeated age, so there's no mode here.
Range: The range of ages is 22 - 18 = 4 years.
Graph: You can create a histogram to visualize the distribution of ages.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS EXAMPLE:

Imagine you work for a survey company and you're interested in understanding the average salary of all
employees in a company, but surveying every employee is impossible due to time and resource
constraints.

Sample Data: You randomly select 100 employees and find their salaries. This is your sample data.
Inference: Using inferential statistics, you calculate the average salary of the sample and use it to
estimate the average salary of all employees in the company.
Confidence Interval: You might also calculate a confidence interval, say 95%, which gives you a range
within which you believe the true average salary for the entire company lies.
In this case, you're using the sample data to make an educated guess (inference) about the entire
population's average salary. This is where inferential statistics comes into play, helping you draw
conclusions about a larger group based on a smaller subset.

MORE EXAMPLES
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS EXAMPLES:
1. Weather Data: Descriptive statistics can be used to summarize weather data for a month. You
might calculate the average temperature, the highest and lowest temperatures, and the amount of
rainfall.

2. Test Scores: If you have test scores from a class, you can calculate the average score, the most
common score (mode), and the range of scores.

3. Sales Data: For a business, descriptive statistics can help understand sales data. You might
analyze the average monthly sales, the distribution of sales across different products, and the
highest-selling item.

4. Population Demographics: Descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the demographic

characteristics of a city, such as the average age, median income, and the most common
occupation.

5. Sports Statistics: In baseball, you can use descriptive statistics to calculate a player's batting
average, the distribution of home runs per season, and the range of stolen bases.

6. Customer Reviews: Descriptive statistics can help businesses understand customer reviews.
You might calculate the average rating, the most frequent comments, and the spread of ratings.

7. Student Performance: Descriptive statistics can help summarize the academic performance of a
class. You might calculate the average test scores, the range of scores, and the distribution of
grades.

8. Class Attendance: If you're studying the attendance patterns of students, you can use
descriptive statistics to calculate the average number of classes attended, the most common
reasons for absences, and the distribution of attendance rates.

9. Course Evaluations: Descriptive statistics can be used to summarize student feedback on

course evaluations. You might calculate the average ratings for different aspects of the course,
such as content, teaching style, and workload.

10. Library Usage: Descriptive statistics can help understand how often students use the library. This
might involve calculating the average number of books borrowed per student, the most popular
hours for library visits, and the distribution of study space utilization.

11. Classroom Behavior: For a study on classroom behavior, descriptive statistics can be used to
summarize the frequency of different behaviors, such as raising hands, asking questions, and
engaging in group discussions.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS EXAMPLES:

1. Political Polls: If you conduct a poll about voting preferences with a sample of 1000 people, you
can use inferential statistics to estimate the proportion of the entire population that supports a
certain candidate.
2. Medical Trials: In medical research, inferential statistics can be used to determine whether a new
drug is effective. Researchers analyze data from a sample of patients to make conclusions about
the larger population's response to the drug.

3. Quality Control: In manufacturing, if you test a sample of products and find defects, inferential
statistics can help you estimate the proportion of all products with defects and make decisions
about production.

4. Education Research: If researchers want to know if a new teaching method is effective, they
might conduct a study with a sample of students. Using inferential statistics, they can determine if
the improvement seen in the sample is likely to apply to the broader student population.

5. Market Research: If a company wants to estimate how many people in a city will buy a new
product, they can survey a smaller group (sample) and use inferential statistics to make an
educated guess about the entire city's buying behavior.

6. Political Elections: During an election, exit polls are conducted with a sample of voters. Using
inferential statistics, analysts can predict the outcome of the election for the entire voting
population.

7. Economic Indicators: Governments use inferential statistics to estimate unemployment rates

and inflation rates based on data from a sample of households.

8. Education Research: Researchers might conduct a study to determine the impact of a new
teaching method on student learning. Using inferential statistics, they can analyze data from a
sample of students to make conclusions about the effectiveness of the method for a larger
student population.

9. Admissions Data: If a university wants to estimate the average SAT scores of all applicants
based on a sample, they can use inferential statistics to make predictions about the entire
applicant pool.

10. Survey Studies: If a research study involves surveying students about their study habits,
inferential statistics can help draw conclusions about the broader student population's habits
based on the responses of the sample.

11. Language Proficiency: If researchers are studying the language proficiency of international
students, they can use inferential statistics to estimate the proportion of the entire international
student population that meets certain language requirements.

12. Student Satisfaction: If a university wants to understand overall student satisfaction, inferential
statistics can be used to draw conclusions about the entire student body based on responses
from a sample of students.

13. Online Learning Impact: In the context of online education, inferential statistics can be employed
to estimate how much time students spend on course materials and whether there's a correlation
between time spent and performance.
 14. Educational Policy Impact: If a new policy, like reducing class sizes, is implemented in certain
schools, inferential statistics can be used to analyze whether there's a significant difference in
academic outcomes between schools with smaller classes and those with larger classes.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
•Collect Data - Collecting data is the foundational step in descriptive statistics. It involves gathering
information about a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. Data can be collected through various
methods such as surveys, observations, experiments, and records.
e.g. Survey
Example: conducting a survey to understand people's favorite types of pets. You ask people whether
they prefer dogs, cats, birds, or other animals. The responses you collect become your data.

•Present Data - Once you've collected data, you need to organize and present it in a way that's easy to
understand. This helps in visualizing patterns, trends, and relationships in the data. Tables, graphs, and
charts are commonly used to present data effectively.
e.g. Tables and Graphs
Example: After conducting your pet preference survey, you can create a bar chart showing the number
of people who prefer each type of pet. This graph makes it visually clear which pet is the most popular
among your respondents.

•Characterize Data - Characterizing data means summarizing its key features to gain insights.
Descriptive statistics provide measures that help you understand the central tendency (average,
median) and variability (range, standard deviation) of the data.
e.g. Mean
Example: Continuing with the pet preference survey, you can calculate the mean (average) number of
pets people prefer. Let's say your data shows that on average, people prefer 1.8 pets. This gives you an
idea of the typical preference among your respondents.

MORE EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

1. Calculating the average height of students in a classroom.
2. Summarizing the distribution of ages in a population.
3. Organizing survey responses about preferred modes of transportation.
4. Presenting the frequency of different hair colors in a group of people.
5. Characterizing the variability of test scores in a class.
6. Summarizing the monthly rainfall amounts for a year in a specific location.
7. Organizing data on customer purchase amounts for different products.
8. Calculating the median income of households in a neighborhood.
9. Describing the spread of prices for a particular product in a store.
 10. Summarizing the distribution of body mass index (BMI) in a health study.
11. Organizing survey responses about favorite genres of music.
12. Presenting the number of hours spent on various extracurricular activities by students.
13. Characterizing the distribution of commuting times among employees.
14. Summarizing the average temperatures recorded over a month.
15. Organizing data on the number of books read by different individuals.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
•Estimation - Estimation in inferential statistics involves using information from a sample to make
educated guesses or estimates about a larger population. It's like making a prediction about a whole
group based on what you've seen in a smaller part of that group.
Example: Imagine you're a researcher studying the average income of people in a city. Instead of
surveying every single person, you randomly survey 200 individuals. Using their average income, you
can estimate the average income of the entire city's population.

•Hypothesis Testing - Hypothesis testing is a method to determine if a statement or hypothesis about a

population is likely to be true or not. It involves making an initial assumption (null hypothesis) and then
using sample data to decide if there's enough evidence to reject or accept that assumption.
Example: Suppose a company claims that their new energy drink improves focus and concentration.
You design an experiment to test this claim. Your null hypothesis might be that the drink has no effect.
You gather a group of participants, give some the energy drink and others a placebo, and then compare
their performance on concentration tasks. If you find that the group that drank the energy drink
performed significantly better, you might reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the energy drink
indeed improves concentration.
Example: Researchers studying the effects of a new drug might conduct a clinical trial with a sample of
patients to test whether the drug has a significant impact on reducing symptoms.

Making decisions concerning a population based on sample results - Inferential statistics involves
taking the results from a sample and using them to make decisions or draw conclusions about a larger
population. It's about making educated guesses about the entire group based on what you've observed
in a smaller subset.
Example: Suppose you want to know the average height of all trees in a forest. Measuring every single
tree is impractical, so you select a sample of 50 trees and measure their heights. Using inferential
statistics, you can estimate the average height of all trees in the forest based on the average height of
your sample.

MORE EXAMPLES OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:

1. Estimating the average income of households in a city based on a sample.
2. Testing the effectiveness of a new teaching method on student exam scores.
3. Determining whether a new advertising campaign leads to increased sales.
 4. Estimating the proportion of voters who support a certain political candidate.
5. Analyzing whether a change in packaging design affects customer preferences.
6. Testing whether a new weight loss program leads to significant weight reduction.
7. Estimating the average lifespan of a certain species based on a sample of individuals.
8. Assessing whether a training program improves employee productivity.
9. Predicting the future demand for a product based on historical sales data.
10.Evaluating whether a new software update improves user satisfaction.
11. Estimating the percentage of defective items in a manufacturing batch.
12.Analyzing whether a new drug has a significant effect on reducing symptoms.
13.Predicting customer churn based on usage patterns and feedback.
14.Estimating the average time spent on a specific social media platform.
15.Testing whether a change in website layout affects user engagement.

DESCRIPTIVE VS. INFERENTIAL

1. A newspaper article reports the average salaries of health practitioners based on the average salaries
obtained from samples in different health centers and hospitals.

2. A social psychologist is interested in determining whether individuals who graduate from technical
vocational schools earn more than those who finished a four-degree college degree. He gathered data
relative to the study and presented the results using tables and graphs.

3. A study of 250 patients admitted to a hospital during the past year revealed that, on the average, the
patients lived 15 miles from the hospital. This was used to determine the average distance of residences
of patients in the population.

Example 1:

"A newspaper article reports the average salaries of health practitioners based on the average salaries
obtained from samples in different health centers and hospitals."

Type: This example is using inferential statistics.

Explanation: The newspaper article is making an inference about the average salaries of health
practitioners in a broader context (population) based on the average salaries obtained from samples in
different health centers and hospitals. It's using data from samples to make an educated guess about
the entire population's average salaries.

Example 2:

"A social psychologist is interested in determining whether individuals who graduate from technical
vocational schools earn more than those who finished a four-degree college degree. He gathered data
relative to the study and presented the results using tables and graphs."

Type: This example is using descriptive statistics.

Explanation: The social psychologist is collecting data to compare the earnings of two groups:
individuals who graduate from technical vocational schools and those who finished a four-degree college
degree. By presenting the results using tables and graphs, the psychologist is engaging in descriptive
statistics to organize and visually display the data for better understanding. However, there's no mention
of making broader predictions or conclusions beyond the sample data collected.

Example 3:

"A study of 250 patients admitted to a hospital during the past year revealed that, on the average, the
patients lived 15 miles from the hospital. This was used to determine the average distance of residences
of patients in the population."

Type: This example is using descriptive statistics.

Explanation: The study presents the average distance of residences of patients based on the data
collected from the 250 patients admitted to the hospital. This is descriptive because it's summarizing and
characterizing the data from the sample without making broader inferences about the entire population
of patients.

1. A correlational study is conducted on a sample-the finding was used to determine the relationship
between family income and nutritional status of the children in the population.
2. A study aimed to determine the frequency of participation and extent of competence of BSE students
in Statistics. Results obtained from a sample of students showed that they are moderately competent.

3. A study is conducted on a sample to determine the significant differences in the extent of utilization of
the worldwide web between the freshmen and the seniors in a certain university. The perceptions of 200
freshmen and 150 seniors were obtained and presented and compared using tables and graphs.

Example 1:

"A correlational study is conducted on a sample-the finding was used to determine the relationship
between family income and nutritional status of the children in the population."

Type: This example is using descriptive statistics.

Explanation: The study aims to describe and understand the relationship between family income and the
nutritional status of children in the population. It's not making predictions or broader inferences about the
entire population based on the sample. The study's findings are used to provide insights into the nature
of the relationship, which is a descriptive analysis.

Example 2:

"A study aimed to determine the frequency of participation and extent of competence of BSE students in
Statistics. Results obtained from a sample of students showed that they are moderately competent."

Type: This example is using descriptive statistics.

Explanation: The study is providing a description of the frequency of participation and the extent of
competence of BSE (Bachelor of Science in Education) students in Statistics. The conclusion about
students being "moderately competent" is a summary of the data collected from the sample. The study is
characterizing the sample's attributes without making predictions or broader inferences about the entire
population.

Example 3:
"A study is conducted on a sample to determine the significant differences in the extent of utilization of
the worldwide web between the freshmen and the seniors in a certain university. The perceptions of 200
freshmen and 150 seniors were obtained and presented and compared using tables and graphs."

Type: This example is using inferential statistics.

Explanation: The study involves comparing the extent of utilization of the worldwide web between two
groups (freshmen and seniors) and determining if there are significant differences. By collecting
perceptions from both groups and using inferential statistics, the study attempts to make conclusions
about the entire population of freshmen and seniors at the university based on the sample data. The
goal is to infer whether the observed differences are likely to reflect broader trends in the population.

POPULATION and SAMPLE

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

POPULATION

1. The measurable quality is called parameter- In a population, a measurable characteristic that we

want to study or analyze is referred to as a parameter. This could be things like the average age,
income, or height of all members of the population.

2. A complete set - A population is the entire group or collection of individuals, objects, or elements that
we are interested in studying. It includes every single member of that group.

3. Reports are true representation of opinion - When you make statements or reports about a
population, you are making assertions that hold true for every individual in the entire population. This is
because a population encompasses all members, so if you make a statement about it, it is considered a
true representation of the entire group.

4. Contains all members of a specified group - A population includes every single individual or item
that fits the criteria of the group being studied. For example, if you're studying all the students in a
particular school, the population includes every student in that school.

SAMPLE
1. The measurable quality is called a statistic - In a sample, a measurable characteristic that we want
to study or analyze is referred to as a statistic. This could be things like the average age, income, test
scores, number of siblings, years of experience, household sizes,number of employees, time spent in
doing something (exercising, using phones, playing games, browsing facebook, watching tiktok videos)
weight, or height of the individuals in the sample.

2. The sample is a subset of the population - A sample is a smaller group of individuals or items that
is selected from the larger population. It's chosen in a way that it should accurately represent the
characteristics of the whole population.

3. Reports have margins of error and confidence interval - When you report findings or results
based on a sample, it's important to acknowledge that your conclusions might not be exactly the same
as if you had data from the entire population. Margins of error and confidence intervals provide a range
within which you believe the true population parameter lies based on your sample data.

4. It a subset that represents the entire population - The goal of selecting a sample is to have a
group of individuals that captures the essential characteristics of the larger population. If the sample is
well-chosen and representative, the insights gained from analyzing the sample can be used to make
inferences about the entire population.

POPULATION and SAMPLE

Example:

Audrey is interested about mobile phones used by the employees in her company.

Population: collection of all values/prices of cellular phones owned by the employees in the company.

Sample: any part of population, say, the values of the cellular phones owned by randomly selected
employees 910 from each department)

Example:

Dina Maala wants to study the satisfaction of customers on her restaurant service.

Population: all customers in the restaurant

Sample: customers between 10 am to 2 pm

VARIABLES

- It is a characteristics or attribute of persons or objects which can be assume different values or labels
for different person or objects under consideration.

Variables:

A variable is a characteristic or attribute of individuals, objects, situations, or phenomena that can take
on different values or labels. In other words, variables are things that can vary – they have different
levels or categories depending on what or who you're looking at. Variables are used to capture and
measure different aspects of the things we're studying.

Key Points:

Characteristics or Attributes: Variables are specific characteristics or attributes that we're interested in
studying. These could be things like age, height, income, color, satisfaction, temperature, and more.

Can Assume Different Values or Labels: A crucial aspect of variables is that they are not fixed; they
can take on various values or labels. For instance, age can be 25, 30, 40, etc., and a color variable
could be red, blue, green, and so on.

Different Persons or Objects: Variables pertain to individuals, objects, or things that you're observing,
measuring, or studying. For instance, if you're studying people's heights, the variable "height" applies to
different individuals.

Representation of Diversity: Variables allow us to capture the diversity and variation that exists in the
world. They help us understand differences and similarities among individuals, objects, or situations.

Examples:

Age: In a study of a group of people, "age" is a variable. Different individuals have different ages, and
this characteristic can take on various numeric values.

Gender: When analyzing a population's gender distribution, "gender" is a variable. It has distinct labels
such as "male" and "female."

Temperature: In a weather analysis, "temperature" is a variable. It can have different numeric values
like 68°F, 72°F, and so on.

Income: When studying people's incomes, "income" is a variable. Different individuals can have
different income values, which can be numeric.
Education Level: In a survey about education, "education level" is a variable. It can have labels like
"high school," "bachelor's degree," "master's degree," and so forth.

Color Preference: If you're investigating people's favorite colors, "color preference" is a variable. It can
have labels like "red," "blue," "green," and more.

In essence, variables are the building blocks of data analysis. They allow us to quantify and
categorize the diverse aspects of the world around us, enabling us to understand, compare, and
make informed decisions based on the data we collect.

MORE EXAMPLES:

1. Height of Basketball Players: In a basketball team, the heights of the players are a variable. Each
player has a different height.
2. Number of Books Read: If you're asking your friends how many books they've read this year, the
number of books is a variable. It's different for each friend.
3. Monthly Income: When talking about people's earnings, their monthly income is a variable.
Different people have different amounts of money they earn each month.
4. Temperature: If you're tracking the temperature every day, the temperature is a variable. It
changes from one day to the next.
5. Number of Likes on a Post: On social media, the number of likes you get on a post is a variable.
It's different for each post you make.
6. Shoe Size: Imagine measuring the shoe sizes of your classmates. Shoe size is a variable
because it's different for each person.
7. Hours of Sleep: When you ask your family how many hours of sleep they got last night, the hours
of sleep is a variable. It's a number that's different for each person.
8. Favorite Color: If you're asking people what their favorite color is, their answers are a variable.
Different people like different colors.
9. Distance Traveled: If you're on a road trip and you ask your family how many miles you've
traveled, the distance is a variable. It's a different number each time you ask.
10. Amount Spent on Groceries: When you're at the store, the amount of money you spend on
groceries is a variable. It changes depending on what you buy.
11. Number of Pets: If you're talking to your neighbors about how many pets they have, the number
of pets is a variable. It's different for each neighbor.
12. Blood Pressure: In a health check, your blood pressure is a variable. It's a number that can
change depending on various factors.
 13. Travel Time to Work: If you're discussing how long it takes different people to get to work, the
travel time is a variable. It's different for each person.
14. Favorite Food: When you're asking your friends about their favorite food, their answers are a
variable. Different people have different favorite foods.
15. Number of Social Media Followers: For social media influencers, the number of followers they
have is a variable. It's different for each influencer.

MORE IN THE CONTEXT OF ACADEMICS:

1. Time Spent Studying: If you're asking students how many hours they spend studying each day,
the number of hours is a variable. It's different for each student.
2. Grade Point Average (GPA): In a class, students' GPAs are variables. Each student has a
different GPA that reflects their academic performance.
3. Number of Absences: When tracking students' attendance, the number of times they're absent is
a variable. It varies from student to student.
4. Major/Field of Study: In a college, students' majors or fields of study are variables. Different
students are studying different subjects.
5. Homework Scores: If you're looking at students' scores on homework assignments, those scores
are variables. They're different for each assignment and each student.
6. Classroom Participation: When evaluating how much students participate in class discussions,
their level of participation is a variable. It can be different for each student.
7. Research Project Grades: If you're giving grades for research projects, the grades are variables.
Each student will have a different grade.
8. Library Usage: Imagine you're studying how often students visit the library. The number of times
each student goes is a variable.
9. Number of Extracurricular Activities: If you're researching how many extracurricular activities
students are involved in, the number of activities is a variable. It can differ for each student.
10. Test Anxiety Level: When measuring students' anxiety before a test, the level of anxiety is a
variable. It varies among different students.
11. Favorite Subject: If you're asking students about their favorite subjects, their answers are
variables. Each student might have a different favorite subject.
12. Reading Speed: When you measure how fast students read, their reading speed is a variable. It's
different for each student.
13. Assignment Completion Time: Imagine you're tracking how long it takes students to complete
assignments. The time it takes is a variable and can vary among students.
 14. Classroom Behavior: If you're observing how students behave in class, their behavior is a
variable. Different students might exhibit different behaviors.
15. Study Environment: When you ask students about their preferred study environment, their
answers are variables. Different students like different study settings.

Data

-it is any set of observation.

- Data refers to any collection of observations, measurements, or facts. These observations can
be numbers, words, images, or any type of information that we can gather and record. Data is
like the building blocks of information that we use to understand and make decisions about the
world around us.

Key Points:

Observations and Measurements: Data comes from observing or measuring things. For example,
counting how many apples are in a basket or measuring the temperature outside are ways to gather
data.

Numbers, Words, Images, and More: Data isn't just numbers; it can be words in a sentence, images
from a camera, opinions in a survey, or any kind of information that we can record.

Raw Material for Analysis: Think of data as the raw material that scientists, analysts, and researchers
use to understand patterns, trends, and relationships. It's like pieces of a puzzle that we put together to
see the bigger picture.

Foundation for Information: Data is what we collect first. When we organize, analyze, and interpret
data, it turns into information that helps us make informed decisions and learn new things.

Examples:

1. Temperature Readings: Imagine you're recording the temperature each day for a month. Those
temperature numbers are data.
2. Survey Responses: If you ask people about their favorite movies and record their answers,
those responses are data.
3. Test Scores: If you have a list of students' scores on a math test, those scores are data.
4. Colors of Cars: Suppose you're recording the colors of cars passing by. The colors you record
are data.
5. Number of Steps: If you're using a fitness tracker to count your steps each day, those step
counts are data.
6. Employee Names: Imagine you're listing the names of employees in a company. Those names
are data.
 7. Sales Figures: If you're keeping track of how much money a store makes each day, those sales
numbers are data.
8. Health Measurements: Suppose you're recording your heart rate and blood pressure over a
week. Those measurements are data.
9. Book Titles: If you're making a list of book titles in a library, those titles are data.
10. Social Media Likes: When you're tracking how many likes a post gets on social media, those like
counts are data.
11. Final Exam Scores: When teachers record the scores of students' final exams, those scores are
academic data that show how well students performed in the course.
12. Research Surveys: Researchers might conduct surveys to collect data on student opinions
about online learning experiences or the effectiveness of certain teaching methods.
13. Attendance Records: Tracking how often students attend classes and engage in discussions
generates data on their level of involvement.
14. Enrollment Numbers: When universities record how many students enroll in different programs,
they're collecting data about program popularity.
15. Educational Progression: Data on students' progression from one grade level to the next
provides insights into educational success rates.
16. Feedback on Assignments: Collecting students' feedback on assignments and projects
generates data about their learning experiences and challenges.
17. Online Quiz Results: When educators analyze the results of online quizzes, they're working with
data that helps them understand areas where students might be struggling.
18. Library Borrowing Data: Tracking which books or materials students borrow from the library
generates data about their academic interests.

CATEGORICAL (Qualitative)

-are data which can be classified intogroups or categories.

- Categorical data, also known as qualitative data, consists of information that can be divided
into distinct categories or groups. These categories are non-numeric and represent different
characteristics, attributes, or labels. Categorical data is used to describe qualities, traits,
preferences, or memberships of individuals or items.

Key Points:

Categories or Groups: Categorical data is divided into groups or categories. Each category represents
a specific attribute or characteristic.

Non-Numeric Labels: Unlike numerical data, categorical data doesn't involve numbers. Instead, it uses
labels, names, or descriptions to represent different qualities.

Descriptive Information: Categorical data helps us understand the distribution and frequencies of
different qualities in a group or population.
Examples:

1. Attitudes of workers in a company towards their superiors - In the context of a company,

attitudes of workers towards their superiors can be categorized as "positive," "neutral," or "negative."
These categories represent different attitudes without using numbers.

2. Problems encountered of students in accomplishing modules - When students encounter

problems while completing modules, these problems can be categorized into groups such as "technical
issues," "content confusion," or "time management."

3. Hair Color: If you're categorizing people's hair color, the categories might be "blonde," "brunette,"
"black," "red," and so on.

4. Marital Status: Categories like "single," "married," "divorced," or "widowed" represent different marital
statuses.

5. Favorite Movie Genres: If you're asking people about their favorite movie genres, the categories
could be "action," "comedy," "drama," and so forth.

6. Education Levels: When categorizing education, you might use labels like "high school," "bachelor's
degree," "master's degree," and more.

7. Types of Pets: If you're classifying people's pets, the categories might include "dog," "cat," "fish,"
"bird," and others.

8. Political Affiliation: Categories like "Democrat," "Republican," "Independent," and others represent
different political affiliations.

9. Types of Vehicles: When classifying vehicles, categories could include "car," "truck," "motorcycle,"
"bicycle," and so on.

10. Flower Types: If you're categorizing different types of flowers, the categories could be "rose," "tulip,"
"daisy," and more.

11. Favorite Food Categories: If you're asking people about their favorite types of food, categories
might include "Italian," "Mexican," "Chinese," and others.

12.Blood Types: When categorizing blood types, you might use categories like "A," "B," "AB," and "O."

13.Language Spoken: If you're classifying people by the language they speak, categories might include
"English," "Spanish," "French," and so on.

14.Social Media Platforms: Categories could include "Facebook," "Twitter," "Instagram," "LinkedIn,"
and others.
15.Clothing Sizes: When categorizing clothing sizes, labels might include "small," "medium," "large,"
and more.

16.Customer Feedback: If you're categorizing feedback from customers, categories might be

"satisfied," "neutral," and "unsatisfied."

17.Types of Music: When classifying musical preferences, categories could include "rock," "pop," "jazz,"
and others.

18.Economic Status: Categories might include "low-income," "middle-income," and "high-income."

19.Educational Majors: When categorizing students' majors, labels could include "engineering,"
"biology," "history," and more.

20.Favorite Colors: If you're asking people about their favorite colors, categories might be "blue,"
"green," "purple," and so forth.

21.Housing Types: Categories like "apartment," "house," "condo," and "townhouse" represent different
types of housing.

22.Job Titles: When classifying people's job titles, categories could include "manager," "engineer,"
"teacher," and more.

23.Reasons for Travel: Categories might include "business," "vacation," "family visit," and others.

24.Sports Preferences: If you're categorizing people's favorite sports, labels might be "soccer,"
"basketball," "tennis," and more.

25.Computer Operating Systems: Categories could include "Windows," "Mac," "Linux," and others.

26.Types of Beverages: When classifying beverages, categories might be "water," "coffee," "tea,"
"soda," and more.

27.Preferred Book Genres: Categories like "mystery," "science fiction," "romance," and others
represent different book genres.

28.Vehicle Colors: If you're categorizing vehicle colors, labels might be "red," "blue," "black," and so on.

29.Religious Beliefs: Categories could include "Christianity," "Islam," "Buddhism," and others.

30.Travel Destinations: When categorizing travel preferences, categories might include "beach,"
"mountains," "city," and more.

NUMERICAL (Quantitative)

- values of variables expressed in numerical terms.

- Numerical data, also known as quantitative data, involves values that are expressed in
numbers. This type of data is used for measuring quantities and performing mathematical
operations. Numerical data can be further divided into two categories: discrete and continuous.

Key Points:

Values in Numbers: Numerical data consists of values represented by numbers. These values can be
counted, measured, and used in calculations.

Quantities and Measurements: Numerical data is used to measure quantities such as length, height,
weight, time, temperature, and more.

Mathematical Operations: Numerical data allows for mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.

Examples:

1. Number of rooms and hospital admissions - When you're counting the number of rooms in a
hospital, you're dealing with numerical data. The values (numbers) represent the count of rooms.
AND If you're recording the number of patients admitted to a hospital each day, those counts are
numerical data.
2. Monthly income of families in your barangay - If you're collecting data on the monthly income
of families in your barangay, you're working with numerical data. The income amounts are
represented by numbers.
3. Height of Students: Measuring the height of students and recording the measurements in inches
or centimeters involves numerical data.
4. Temperature: When recording the temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, you're using
numerical data.
5. Weight of Products: If you're measuring the weight of products in a store and using kilograms or
pounds, you're working with numerical data.
6. Age: When you're collecting ages of individuals, those ages are numerical data expressed in
years.
7. Test Scores: If you have a list of test scores from a class, those scores are numerical data that
represent students' performance.
8. Distance Traveled: Measuring the distance a car travels and recording it in miles or kilometers
involves numerical data.
9. Time Taken: If you're measuring the time it takes to complete a task and using minutes or
seconds, you're using numerical data.
10. Number of Books Read: If you're counting how many books people have read, those counts are
numerical data.
11. Salary: When collecting information about people's salaries, those salary amounts are numerical
data.
12. Age of Vehicles: If you're recording the ages of vehicles and representing them in years, you're
dealing with numerical data.
13. Population Counts: When collecting data on the population of different cities, those population
numbers are numerical data.
14. Amount of Money Spent: Measuring and recording how much money someone spends on
groceries involves numerical data.
15. GPA (Grade Point Average): If you're recording students' GPAs, those decimal numbers are
numerical data that reflect their academic performance.
16. Number of Customers: If you're counting how many customers visit a store each day, those
counts are numerical data.
17. Age of Trees: Measuring the age of trees in years involves numerical data.
18. Speed of Vehicles: Recording the speed of cars on a highway in miles per hour or kilometers per
hour is numerical data.
19. Height of Buildings: Measuring the height of buildings in feet or meters involves numerical data.
20. Number of Facebook Likes: Counting the number of likes a Facebook post receives is
numerical data.
21. Scores in Sports: Recording the scores of different teams in a sports match involves numerical
data.
22. Blood Pressure: Measuring and recording blood pressure values, like 120/80 mmHg, involves
numerical data.
23. Stock Prices: If you're tracking the prices of different stocks in the stock market, those prices are
numerical data.
24. Calories Consumed: Keeping track of the number of calories consumed in a day involves
numerical data.
25. Distance Between Cities: Measuring the distance between two cities in miles or kilometers
involves numerical data.
26. Population Growth: Recording the annual population growth rates of different regions involves
numerical data.
27. Volume of Liquid: Measuring the volume of liquid in milliliters or liters is numerical data.
28. Ages of Family Members: If you're collecting the ages of family members, those ages are
numerical data.
29. Test Duration: Measuring the time it takes to complete a test in minutes is numerical data.
30. Number of Emails Received: Counting the number of emails received in a day involves
numerical data.
31. Number of Steps Walked: Tracking the number of steps you take using a pedometer involves
numerical data.
32. Temperature Changes: Recording the change in temperature from morning to afternoon is
numerical data.
33. Amount of Rainfall: Measuring the amount of rainfall in inches or centimeters involves numerical
data.
34. Household Expenses: Recording the amount of money spent on groceries, utilities, and other
expenses involves numerical data.

DISCRETE and CONTINUOUS VARIABLE

DISCRETE

- a variable that assumes a finite number of possible values within a limited range of values.

- there are gaps or spaces between possible values.

- A discrete variable is a type of numerical variable that takes on specific, separate values
within a defined range. These values are distinct and often whole numbers, and there are
gaps or spaces between possible values. Discrete variables are counted, and they don't have
"in-between" values. They are used to represent things that can be counted individually.

Example:

Number of females in a family of 5. There are only 6 possible values that the variable can assume,
namely;0,1,2,3,4,5.

Examples:

1. Number of Siblings: If you're counting the number of siblings a person has, it's a discrete
variable. The possible values are whole numbers (0, 1, 2, ...), and you can't have fractions of
siblings.
2. Number of Cars in a Parking Lot: Counting the number of cars in a parking lot results in a
discrete variable because you're dealing with individual cars.
3. Dice Roll: The outcome of rolling a fair six-sided die is a discrete variable. The possible
values are the numbers 1 through 6.
4. Number of Emails Received: Counting the number of emails you receive in a day is a
discrete variable. You can't receive a fraction of an email.
5. Number of Pets: If you're counting how many pets someone has, it's a discrete variable
because you're dealing with individual pets.
6. Children in a Family: The number of children in a family is a discrete variable, as you can
only have whole numbers of children.
7. Students in a Class: Counting the number of students in a class results in a discrete variable,
as you're dealing with individual students.
8. Number of Books Sold: The number of books sold at a bookstore is a discrete variable. You
can't sell a fraction of a book.
9. Number of Apples in a Basket: If you're counting how many apples are in a basket, it's a
discrete variable.
10. Coins in a Purse: Counting the number of coins in a purse gives you a discrete variable.
11. Number of Text Messages Sent: Counting the number of text messages you send in a day is
a discrete variable.
12. Number of Cups of Coffee Drunk: If you're counting how many cups of coffee you drink in a
week, it's a discrete variable.
13. Number of Pencils in a Box: Counting the number of pencils in a box gives you a discrete
variable.
14. Number of Likes on a Social Media Post: Counting the number of likes a post receives on
social media is a discrete variable.
15. Number of Coins Flipped Heads: If you're flipping a coin and counting the number of times it
lands heads up, it's a discrete variable.
16. Number of TV Channels: Counting the number of TV channels you have access to is a
discrete variable.
17. Number of People in a Queue: Counting the number of people in a queue (line) at a store is
a discrete variable.
18. Number of Questions Answered Correctly: Counting the number of questions a student
answers correctly on a test is a discrete variable.
19. Number of Days in a Month: The number of days in a month is a discrete variable since it
can only take on whole numbers.
 20. Number of Employees in a Company: Counting the number of employees in a company
gives you a discrete variable.
21. Number of Fingers: Counting the number of fingers on a hand is a discrete variable because
fingers are individual and whole.
22. Number of Bus Stops: If you're counting the number of bus stops on a route, it's a discrete
variable.
23. Number of Marbles in a Jar: Counting the number of marbles in a jar is a discrete variable.
24. Number of Teeth in an Adult Mouth: The number of teeth in an adult mouth is a discrete
variable.
25. Number of Votes Received: Counting the number of votes received by a candidate is a
discrete variable.
26. Number of Goals in a Soccer Match: Counting the number of goals scored in a soccer
match gives you a discrete variable.
27. Number of Coins in Your Wallet: If you're counting the number of coins you have in your
wallet, it's a discrete variable.
28. Number of Stamps in a Stamp Collection: Counting the number of stamps in a stamp
collection is a discrete variable.
29. Number of Friends on Social Media: Counting the number of friends you have on social
media is a discrete variable.
30. Number of Shoes in a Closet: Counting the number of shoes you have in your closet gives
you a discrete variable.

DISCRETE and CONTINUOUS VARIABLE

CONTINUOUS

- a variable which can take an infinite number of possible values within a range.

-we can represent the values of a continuous variable by a solid line connecting the points.

- A continuous variable is a type of numerical variable that can take on an infinite number of
values within a certain range. These values can include any real number, including decimals and
fractions. Continuous variables are typically measured and involve quantities that can be "in-
between" values. They are used to represent things that can be measured with great precision.\
Example:

1. Amount of time spent on housework in a week - Measuring the amount of time spent on
housework in a week is a continuous variable. The time can be measured in hours and minutes,
and it can take on any value within that range.
2. Weight of grade 3 students - If you're measuring the weight of grade 3 students, it's a
continuous variable because weights can be measured with great precision, including decimals.
3. Speed of cars - Measuring the speed of cars is a continuous variable. Speed can be measured
in miles per hour (mph) or kilometers per hour (km/h) and can take on any value within a range.
4. Height of Individuals: Measuring the height of individuals is a continuous variable. Heights can
include fractions of inches or centimeters.
5. Temperature: Temperature, measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, is a continuous variable
as it can include decimal values.
6. Distance Traveled: Measuring the distance a person runs, walks, or drives is a continuous
variable, as it can be measured with high precision.
7. Age: Age can be considered a continuous variable because it can include fractional years, such
as 25.5 years.
8. Amount of Rainfall: Measuring the amount of rainfall in millimeters or inches is a continuous
variable.
9. Amount of Money Spent: Measuring the amount of money spent on a purchase is a continuous
variable, including decimals for exact amounts.
10. Height of Trees: Measuring the height of trees in feet or meters is a continuous variable, as
heights can be measured with high precision.
11. Volume of Liquid: Measuring the volume of liquid in liters or milliliters is a continuous variable.
12. Salary: If you're measuring people's salaries, it's a continuous variable because salaries can
include decimal values.
13. Length of a River: Measuring the length of a river in kilometers or miles is a continuous variable.
14. pH Level: Measuring the pH level of a solution is a continuous variable.
15. Reaction Time: Measuring the reaction time of individuals is a continuous variable, as it can be
measured in fractions of seconds.
16. Blood Sugar Level: Measuring blood sugar levels is a continuous variable because it can include
decimal values.
17. Speed of Sound: Measuring the speed of sound in a specific medium is a continuous variable.
18. Depth of a Lake: Measuring the depth of a lake in meters or feet is a continuous variable.
19. Electric Current: Measuring the electric current in a circuit is a continuous variable.
 20. Time Taken for a Reaction: Measuring the time taken for a chemical reaction to occur is a
continuous variable.
21. Body Temperature: Measuring body temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is a continuous
variable.
22. Voltage: Measuring the voltage across an electrical component is a continuous variable.
23. Height of Waves: Measuring the height of ocean waves in meters is a continuous variable.
24. Temperature Change: Measuring the change in temperature is a continuous variable.

EXERCISES

For each of the following random variables determine whether the variable is categorical or numerical. If
the variable is numerical, determine whether it is discrete or continuous.

1. Attitudes of workers in a company towards their superiors.

2. Personality traits of teachers in your school

3. Study habits of the students

4.Level of involvement of families in your school.

EXERCISES

5. Morale of the workers in a factory

6. Scores in a test

7. Average of the final grades of students in all their subjects.

8. Vehicle that pass given point from 12:00 to 1:00 pm

9. Heights of all 15-year old students in your school.

10. Weights of junior students in your school.

1. Attitudes of workers in a company towards their superiors: Categorical (Qualitative)

 This variable involves different attitudes, which are qualitative and can be categorized as
"positive," "neutral," or "negative."
2. Personality traits of teachers in your school: Categorical (Qualitative)
 Personality traits are qualitative characteristics that can be categorized, such as "introverted,"
"extroverted," "organized," and so on.
 3. Study habits of the students: Categorical (Qualitative)
 Study habits can be categorized based on characteristics like "hardworking," "procrastinator,"
"organized," and others.
4. Level of involvement of families in your school: Categorical (Qualitative)
 The level of involvement can be categorized, such as "high," "medium," or "low."
5. Morale of the workers in a factory: Categorical (Qualitative)
 Morale can be categorized based on the workers' emotional states, such as "high," "medium," or
"low."
6. Scores in a test: Numerical (Discrete)
 This variable involves specific numerical values that represent students' scores. Since scores are
counted in whole numbers (e.g., 85, 92), it's a discrete variable.
7. Average of the final grades of students in all their subjects: Numerical (Continuous)
 The average grade can take on any real value within a range, including decimals. It's a
continuous variable.
8. Vehicles that pass a given point from 12:00 to 1:00 pm: Numerical (Discrete)
 This variable involves counting the number of vehicles, which results in whole numbers. It's a
discrete variable.
9. Heights of all 15-year-old students in your school: Numerical (Continuous)
 Heights can take on any real value within a range, including fractions. It's a continuous variable.
10. Weights of junior students in your school: Numerical (Continuous)
 Weights can also take on any real value within a range, including decimals. It's a continuous
variable.

In summary:

Categorical (Qualitative) variables involve qualitative characteristics that can be categorized into
groups or labels.

Numerical variables involve numerical values. If numerical variables are counted in whole
numbers, they are discrete; if they can take any real value within a range, they are continuous.