CHAPTER 3

MOBILE RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL, SMALL SCALE

FADING AND DIVERSITY

1. Define Radio Propagation.

Radio propagation refers to the behavior of electromagnetic waves as they travel
through various mediums or environments. In the context of wireless communication, it
primarily involves the study of how radio frequency (RF) signals, such as those used for cellular
and wireless networking, propagate from a transmitter to a receiver. Understanding radio
propagation is crucial for designing efficient and reliable wireless communication systems.

2. Explain Transmission Limitations.

Attenuation:
The strength of signal falls with distance over transmission medium. The extent of attenuation
is a function of distance, transmission medium, as well as the frequency of the underlying
transmission
Distortion:
Since signals at different frequencies attenuate to different extents, a signal comprising of
components over a range of frequencies gets distorted, i.e., the shape of the received signal
changes.
A standard method of resolving this problem (and recovering the original shape) is to amplify
higher frequencies and thus equalize attenuation over a band of frequencies.
Dispersion:
Dispersion is the phenomenon of spreading of a burst of electromagnetic energy during
propagation. Bursts of data sent in rapid succession tend to merge due to dispersion.
Noise:
The most pervasive form of noise is thermal noise. Other forms of noise include −

 Crosstalk (interference between two signals)

 Impulse noise (irregular pulses of high energy caused by external electromagnetic
disturbances).
Fading:
Fading refers to the variation of the signal strength with respect to time/distance and is widely
prevalent in wireless transmissions. The most common causes of fading in the wireless
environment are multipath propagation and mobility (of objects as well as the communicating
devices).
Multipath propagation:
In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which are reflection, scattering,
and diffraction.

Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid surface, whose size is much larger
than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a solid wall.

Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner, whose size is larger than
the wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of a wall.

Scattering occurs when the signal encounters small objects of size smaller than the wavelength
of the signal.
One consequence of multipath propagation is that multiple copies of a signal propagation along
multiple different paths, arrive at any point at different times. So the signal received at a point
is not only affected by the inherent noise, distortion, attenuation, and dispersion in the channel
but also the interaction of signals propagated along multiple paths.

3. Modes of Radio Wave Propagation in Wireless Communication.

Radio Waves are types of electromagnetic Radiation. They are produced by the acceleration of
electromagnetic charges. Radio waves play an important role in communication, navigation,
weather forecasting, medical imaging technology, etc. These waves have the longest
wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Propagation of Radio Waves:
Radio waves can propagate through air, water, various solid objects, vacuum and etc. The
ability of radio waves to propagate through various materials depends on the wavelength and
the frequency of the radio waves.

Modes of Radio Wave Propagation:

There are three main modes of propagation of radio waves: ground wave, sky wave, and space
wave.
Sky Wave Propagation:
This mode of propagation occurs when the signal is transmitted by the transmitting antenna
(Tx) is reflected by the ionosphere layer (sky) and received by the receiving antenna (Rx) is
known as sky wave propagation. The ionosphere is the layer of the earth’s upper atmosphere
that contains ionized gases and plasma. It protects the earth from harmful radiation.

Sky wave propagation occurs in the ionosphere.

The range of frequencies that can be used for sky wave propagation is typically between 3 and
30 MHz.
This mode of propagation is used for long-distance communication over the ocean or other
large bodies of water. The radio waves are reflected off the ionosphere and can be received by
antennas on the ground hundreds or even thousands of miles away. The advantage of sky wave
propagation is its ability to cover vast distances without the need for repeaters or other
equipment. However, the disadvantage is that the signal strength can be affected by changes in
the ionosphere, which can be caused by solar activity or other factors.

Ground Wave Propagation:

This mode of propagation occurs when the transmitting waves travel along the earth’s surface
and are received at the receiving antenna is known as the Ground wave propagation. The range
of the Ground wave Propagation depends on the frequency of the transmitted wave, the power
of the transmitter, and the properties of the earth’s surface and the earth’s atmosphere.

1. Ground wave propagation requires a lower-power transmitter than other methods of radio
wave propagation.
2. It is used for medium-range communication such as 100km to 1000km.
3. mostly the frequency used for the ground wave propagation lies between 3khz to 3Mhz.

Line-of-sight propagation:
This mode of propagation is used for short-range communication, typically within a few miles.
The radio waves travel in a straight line from the transmitter to the receiver and require an
unobstructed line of sight between the two. The advantage of line-of-sight propagation is its
ability to provide a strong, reliable signal over short distances. However, the disadvantage is
that obstacles such as buildings, trees, or hills can block the signal, limiting its range.

4. Explain the Small scale multipath propagation.

Small-Scale Multipath Propagation is like echoes for radio signals. When signals bounce off
objects like buildings or trees, they take different paths and arrive at our devices at different
times. This can cause signal changes, like fading or interference, making it important to
understand for clear wireless communication.
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation is a phenomenon in wireless communication where radio
signals don't just travel in a straight line from a transmitter to a receiver. Instead, they can
bounce off objects like buildings, trees, or even cars, creating multiple paths for the signal to
reach the receiver.
Picture this: You're on a call with a friend while walking through a city with tall buildings.
Sometimes, your friend's voice might sound perfectly clear, and other times, it might become
choppy or even drop for a moment. This happens because the signals from your friend's phone
are taking various paths to reach your phone, and they can interfere with each other along the
way.
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation is all about these rapid, short-term changes in signal
strength and quality caused by these different paths and interference. It's like the echoes you
hear when you shout in the mountains or the ripples in a pond when you throw a stone into it.
Understanding Small-Scale Multipath Propagation is crucial for designing wireless
communication systems that can handle these signal variations, ensuring that calls remain clear
and data can be transmitted reliably, even in challenging environments where signals bounce
around.

5. Explain Large-Scale Multipath Propagation.

Large-Scale Multipath Propagation is a concept in wireless communication that deals with how
radio signals behave over longer distances or in larger areas. Unlike Small-Scale Multipath,
which focuses on short-term signal variations caused by bouncing off nearby objects, Large-
Scale Multipath looks at the big picture.
Imagine you're driving through different areas. In a city with lots of tall buildings, you might
notice that your calls or data connections can change in quality or even drop in certain spots.
As you drive farther away from the city and into more open countryside, you might experience
gradual changes in your signal strength.
Large-Scale Multipath Propagation explains these long-distance signal changes. It considers
factors like the distance between the transmitter (like a cell tower) and the receiver (your
phone), the type of terrain (urban or rural), and even the weather conditions.
Think of it as how a mountain can block your view of a city from a distance or how the
landscape affects how clearly you can hear someone calling your name. Large-Scale Multipath
Propagation helps wireless engineers design systems that can handle these gradual changes in
signal strength and coverage over larger areas.
In summary, Large-Scale Multipath Propagation is about understanding the broader changes in
signal quality and strength over big areas, like cities or countryside, which is important for
making wireless communication work well in different environments.

6. Explain Free space propagation model.

Free Space Propagation Models are a fundamental concept in wireless communication that
describe how radio signals travel in a perfect, obstacle-free environment. Imagine a scenario in
space with no buildings, trees, or anything to obstruct the path of radio waves.
In this idealized environment, radio signals travel in straight lines, just like shining a flashlight
through the dark. However, as these signals move farther away from the transmitter, their
strength diminishes. This weakening follows the 'inverse square law,' which means that if you
double the distance from the source, the signal strength becomes four times weaker.
Free Space Propagation Models are like understanding how the light from a distant star reaches
us in space. The farther you move from the star, the dimmer the light appears.
While the real world isn't completely free of obstacles like space, these models serve as a
crucial starting point for designing wireless systems. Engineers use them as a baseline to
estimate how signals should behave in the absence of obstacles. They provide a fundamental
understanding of signal propagation and help engineers plan for coverage areas and signal
strength in various communication systems.
So, in essence, Free Space Propagation Models help us understand the basic principles of signal
travel in an unobstructed environment, even though our world is filled with obstacles that
influence real-world signal behavior.

7. What is Free Space Propagation loss equation?

The Free Space Propagation Loss equation calculates the loss or weakening of a radio signal
as it travels through free space without any obstacles. This equation is also known as the Friis
Transmission Equation and is expressed as follows:

Where:
 L is the Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) in decibels (dB).
 d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver in meters (m).
 λ (lambda) represents the wavelength of the signal in meters (m).
To use this equation, you need to know the distance between the transmitter and receiver and
the wavelength of the radio signal. The Free Space Propagation Loss equation is fundamental
in wireless communication system design as it helps estimate the signal's attenuation over a
specific distance in an open, unobstructed environment.

8. Explain Path- loss of NLOS and LOS systems with diagram.

Path Loss in LOS Systems (Line-of-Sight):
Definition: Line-of-Sight (LOS) communication occurs when there is a direct and unobstructed
line between the transmitter and the receiver. This is the ideal scenario for radio propagation.
As mentioned LOS stands for Line of Sight. The figure-1 depicts line of sight communication
between two transceivers. This LOS deployment is possible when there is no obstruction
between base station (BS) and mobile/fixed subscriber stations (SSs). In other words, LOS
communication is possible when there is no obstruction between transmitter and receiver. Due
to less attenuation in the LOS communication, it offers good signal strength and higher amount
of throughput compare to NLOS counterpart.
Examples of LOS wireless link:
• Microwave point to point communication
• point to point connection between BS and SS

Path Loss:
In LOS scenarios, path loss primarily occurs due to free-space loss, which is determined by the
distance between the transmitter and the receiver. Free-space loss is described by the Friis
transmission equation:

Where:

 L is the path loss in LOS conditions.

 d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
 λ is the wavelength of the radio signal.

Characteristics:
LOS communication experiences relatively low path loss, making it suitable for long-range
communication. The signal strength remains relatively stable, and it is less susceptible to
signal degradation due to obstacles.

Path Loss in NLOS Systems (Non-Line-of-Sight):

Definition: Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) communication occurs when obstacles or objects
block the direct line between the transmitter and the receiver. This is common in urban
environments or situations with physical obstructions.
As mentioned NLOS stands for Non Line of Sight. The figure-2 depicts NLOS deployment
scenario. As shown, wireless link is considered to be NLOS when natural and/or man made
structures block the path between base station and subscriber stations. In other words, NLOS
communication is possible even when there is obstruction between transmitter and receiver.
The signal arrives to the receiver after going through many obstructions in between. On the
path, signal goes through attenuations as well as reflection, diffraction as well as penetrations.
In NLOS case, wireless link can only be established if reflective path exists between base
station and subscriber station as shown. Due to NLOS, multiple copies of signals arrive at
different times with different amplitudes.
Examples of NLOS wireless link:
• Wireless connection between BS (Base Station) and SS (Subscriber station) / MSS (Mobile
Subscriber Station)
Path Loss: In NLOS scenarios, path loss is more complex than in LOS scenarios. It includes
factors like reflection, diffraction, and scattering, which result in signal attenuation. Path loss
in NLOS conditions is typically higher than in LOS conditions.
Characteristics: NLOS communication experiences higher path loss, leading to reduced
signal strength and potential signal degradation. It requires additional techniques such as signal
relaying, beamforming, or higher transmit power to compensate for the increased path loss.

In summary, radio propagation involves the study of how RF signals behave during
transmission. In LOS scenarios, path loss is primarily due to free-space loss and is relatively
low, while in NLOS scenarios, path loss is higher and influenced by various factors such as
reflection and diffraction. Understanding path loss in different scenarios is essential for
designing effective wireless communication systems.

9. Explain Ray ground reflection model.

The Ray Ground Reflection Model is a concept used in wireless communication to understand
how radio waves interact with the ground. In simple terms, it describes how radio waves, like
those used for cell phones and Wi-Fi, bounce off the ground and affect wireless communication.
Ray Ground Reflection Model:
When radio waves are transmitted from a source, such as a cell phone or a Wi-Fi router, they
travel through the air. When these waves encounter the ground, some of them bounce off the
ground surface, just like how light can bounce off a mirror.
Reflection: The waves that bounce off the ground are called "reflected waves." These waves
travel upward and can be received by antennas on cell phone towers or other devices.
Signal Paths: In wireless communication, you have two types of signal paths: the original
waves that travel directly from the transmitter to the receiver (called "direct waves") and the
waves that bounce off the ground and then reach the receiver (called "reflected waves").
Signal Strength: The reflected waves can arrive at the receiver with a slight delay compared
to the direct waves. When these two sets of waves mix together at the receiver, they can either
strengthen or weaken the signal's strength and quality.
Reliable Communication: The presence of reflected waves can actually improve
communication. It's like having multiple paths for the signal to reach its destination, which can
make wireless connections more reliable, especially in areas with obstacles or varying terrain.

In summary, the Ray Ground Reflection Model explains how radio waves bounce off the
ground and contribute to wireless communication. It helps us understand why signals can
sometimes be stronger or weaker and why wireless devices can work effectively even in
challenging environments.

10. Explain fresnel zone symmetry.

In wireless communication, Fresnel zones refer to a series of elliptical-shaped areas or zones
that exist between a transmitting antenna and a receiving antenna. These zones play a crucial
role in determining the quality and reliability of the wireless signal.

Imagine you have two antennas, one that sends out a wireless signal (transmitting antenna) and
another that receives the signal (receiving antenna). The space between them isn't just a straight
line; it can be a bit curved, like the shape of an elongated football.
When we talk about Fresnel zone symmetry, we're looking at these curved areas around that
imaginary straight line between the antennas. These areas are like slices of a football that help
the signal reach its destination.
In point to point wireless communications, it is important for the line of sight between two
wireless systems to be free from any obstruction (terrain, vegetation, buildings, wind farms and
a host of other obstructions). As any interference or obstruction in the LOS can result in a loss
of signal.
While installing a wireless communication system, it is important to keep an elliptical region
between the transmit antenna and the receive antenna free from any obstruction for the proper
functioning of the system. This 3D elliptical region between the transmit antenna and the
receive antenna is called the Fresnel Zone. The size of the ellipse is determined by the
frequency of operation and the distance between the two sites.
Fresnel zones are numbered, starting from the first zone closest to the straight line between the
antennas and going outward like rings on a tree. Each zone has its own elliptical shape.
This symmetry is important because it ensures that the wireless signal can travel from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna with minimal interference or distortion caused by
obstacles in the path, such as buildings or hills. When the Fresnel zones are symmetrical, it
helps the signal reach its destination more reliably, resulting in better wireless communication.
So, in simple terms, Fresnel zone symmetry means that these curved zones around the straight
line between antennas are balanced and identical on both sides, which is crucial for a strong
and clear wireless signal.
The Fresnel zone is made up of multiple zones, with zone 1 having the strongest signal and
following zones (Zone 2, and Zone 3) having weaker signals.

Based on the figure above, the Fresnel Zone is calculated using the following equation.
11. Briefly explain knife-edge diffraction model.
The knife-edge diffraction model is a concept in wireless communication that helps us
understand how radio waves can bend and diffract around obstacles, such as buildings, hills,
or other obstacles, and still reach their intended destination. Here's a brief explanation of the
knife-edge diffraction model:
When radio waves travel from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna, they typically
follow a straight-line path known as the line-of-sight (LOS) path. However, in the real world,
there are often obstacles in the path that can block the LOS. When this happens, the knife-edge
diffraction model comes into play.
Imagine a scenario where there's a tall building between a transmitter and a receiver. In a perfect
world, the radio waves would be blocked entirely by the building, and there would be no signal
at the receiver. But in reality, something interesting happens.
The knife-edge diffraction model takes into account the sharp edge or "knife-edge" of the
obstacle, such as the corner of a building. When the radio waves encounter this edge, they can
bend or diffract around it. This bending of waves allows some portion of the signal to reach the
receiver, even if it's not a direct LOS path.
Several factors influence the amount of diffraction that occurs, including the wavelength of the
radio waves and the size and shape of the obstacle. The knife-edge diffraction model provides
mathematical equations and predictions to estimate how much signal can diffract around the
obstacle and still be received.

The path loss due to diffraction in the knife edge model is controlled by the Fresnel Diffraction
Parameter which measures how deep the receiver is within the shadowed region. A negative
value for the parameter shows that the obstruction is below the line of sight and if the value is
below -1 there is hardly any loss. A value of 0 (zero) means that the transmitter, receiver and
tip of the obstruction are all in line and the Electric Field Strength is reduced by half or the
power is reduced to one fourth of the value without the obstruction. As the value of the Fresnel
Diffraction Parameter increases on the positive side the path loss rapidly increases. Sometimes
the exact calculation is not needed and only an approximate calculation, as proposed by Lee in
1985, is sufficient.
Fresnel Diffraction Parameter (v) is defined as:
v=h√(2(d1+d2)/(λ d1 d2))
where,

 d1 is the distance between the transmitter and the obstruction along the line of sight
 d2 is the distance between the receiver and the obstruction along the line of sight
 h is the height of the obstruction above the line of sight
 and λ is the wavelength

12. Explain briefly how a RAKE receiver improves the received signal strength.
A RAKE receiver is like a clever detective that improves the strength of the signal it receives.
The dictionary meaning of rake is to gather or collect together something and actually is a
garden tool to collect leaves. But in the terms of computer network, it is for the purpose of
collecting signals from multiple paths arriving at the receiver end. A Rake Receiver is a radio
receiver which is designed for the purpose to counter the effects of multipath fading. Due to
reflections from multiple obstacles in the environment, the radio channel can consist of multiple
copies of the transmitted signal having different amplitude, phases or delays. A rake receiver
can resolve this issue and combine them. For this purpose, several sub-receivers are used which
are known as “fingers”. Below is a simple explanation of how it works:
Imagine you're trying to listen to someone speaking in a noisy room filled with echoes. It's hard
to understand them because the echoes mix with their voice. A RAKE receiver helps by
catching those echoes and making the person's voice clearer.

When the transmitter transmits the signal then it travels through the environment which consists
of various obstacles and the transmitted signal is reflected by them and is received by the rake
receiver from multiple paths. Rake receiver then feeds them to different fingers (correlators).
The delays in each received signal are compensated and are feeded to the Combiner, Integrator
and Comparator which combines them suitably with different appropriate time delays.
Here's how it does that:
Catching Signals: When your phone sends or receives signals, they bounce around and arrive
in different versions due to obstacles or reflections. These different versions are like echoes.
The RAKE receiver has multiple "fingers," like a detective with many ears. Each finger listens
to a different version of the signal.
Combining the Best: The RAKE receiver carefully listens to all these versions and picks the
best parts from each. It's like choosing the clearest words from each echo to build a complete
sentence. By doing this, it combines the signals effectively.
Reducing Noise: Just like a detective filtering out background noise, the RAKE receiver
reduces interference and noise. It focuses on the important parts of the signal, making it
stronger and clearer.
Better Understanding: With all this detective work, the RAKE receiver makes the received
signal much better. It's like having a conversation with someone in a quieter, less echoey room.
You can understand them more easily.

13. Explain Link Margin and Link Budget.

A communication link budget is a way of accounting for all gains and losses in a
communication system from transmitter output power to the power seen by the receiver. By
knowing all the losses and gain in our communication system, we can predict how reliably the
signal can be received. For example, in a satellite communication link the provider would need
to know the satellite transmitter power output, the gain provided by the transmit antenna,
propagation loss etc. in order that the receiver can still receive the signal under adequate signal
to noise ratio. Link budgets are useful in point to point communication where the link can be
optimised with the use of highly directional transmitting and receiving antennas. The chart
below shows a graphical representation of a link budget.
Parameters:
A basic link budget that allows calculation of received power can consist of the following
parameters:
PTx: Transmit power
LTx: Losses at transmitter, cable, connectors etc.
GTx: Transmitter antenna gain.
LP: Propagation loss
GRx: Receiver antenna gain
LRx: Losses at receiver, cable, connectors etc.
PRx: Receive power

To calculate the received power level, we only need to combine all the values (when they are
all expressed as dB) :

Link margin
Since the communication conditions fluctuate, it is important to leave a margin between the
lowest receivable level (receive sensitivity)* and the normal receive level to account for
various communication phenomena e.g. fading. This ensures communication reliability.

14. What is Max. Distance Coverage formula?

The "Max. Distance Coverage formula" is a way to calculate the maximum distance that a
wireless signal can travel between a transmitter (like a cell tower) and a receiver (like a mobile
phone) while still maintaining a reliable connection. In simpler terms, it helps us figure out
how far a signal can reach.
Imagine you're playing catch with a friend in a park. You want to know how far you can throw
the ball and still have your friend catch it. The Max. Distance Coverage formula is like a tool
that helps you calculate this.
Now, in the world of wireless communication, instead of a ball, we have signals. These signals
travel through the air, but they weaken as they go farther. Just like your throw might not reach
your friend if you're too far away, a wireless signal might not reach its destination if it's too
distant.
The Max. Distance Coverage formula considers factors like the signal's strength, the frequency
it uses, and any obstacles or interference in the environment. By putting all these things
together, it gives you an estimate of the maximum distance the signal can travel while still
being strong enough for a good connection.
The "Max. Distance Coverage formula" in wireless communication typically doesn't have a
single fixed formula because it depends on various factors and can vary based on the specific
scenario and the communication system being used. However, below are some of the key
factors that are considered when estimating the maximum distance coverage:
Transmit Power (Pt): This is the power at which the signal is transmitted from the source,
like a cell tower or Wi-Fi router. It's usually measured in watts (W) or decibels (dB).
Frequency (f): The frequency of the signal, which is usually measured in Hertz (Hz). Different
frequencies have different propagation characteristics.
Receiver Sensitivity (Pr): This is the minimum power level the receiver (e.g., a mobile phone)
needs to detect and correctly decode the signal. It's also measured in watts or decibels.
Path Loss (L): This accounts for how much the signal weakens as it travels through the air and
interacts with objects. Path loss depends on factors like distance, frequency, and the
environment.
Antenna Gain (Gt and Gr): The gain of the transmitting (Gt) and receiving (Gr) antennas,
which can focus the signal in a particular direction. Antenna gain is often measured in dBi
(decibels relative to an isotropic radiator).
Propagation Environment: Whether the communication is happening in free space, urban
areas with buildings, forests, or other environments. Different environments affect signal
propagation differently.
While there isn't a single formula that combines all these factors into one equation applicable
to all situations, various models and equations can be used to estimate path loss and,
consequently, the maximum distance coverage. That models consider the factors mentioned
above and provide a framework for engineers and researchers to calculate coverage based on
specific conditions. In practice, wireless communication system designers use specialized
software tools and RF planning to calculate coverage areas more accurately for their specific
deployments.
So, in a nutshell, the Max. Distance Coverage formula is a handy tool that helps us calculate
how far a wireless signal can go and still work well.

15. Explain Indoor Propagation Models.

Indoor propagation models help us understand how wireless signals behave inside
buildings and enclosed spaces. They're important for designing wireless networks that work
well indoors.
Path-Loss Models for Microcellular Areas:
 In microcellular areas (smaller cell sizes), signals weaken as they travel through walls
and obstacles.
 Path-loss models for microcells consider factors like distance, frequency, and building
materials to predict signal loss.
 They help design networks for places like urban areas with lots of buildings.
Path-Loss Models for Picocellular Indoor Areas:
 Picocellular areas are even smaller, like rooms or small offices.
 Models for picocells focus on how walls, furniture, and other indoor objects affect
signals.
 These models help plan networks for indoor spaces where a strong signal is needed,
like offices or homes.

Multifloor Attenuation Model:

 In tall buildings, signals can go through multiple floors, weakening as they do.
 The multifloor attenuation model predicts signal loss between floors.
 It's crucial for planning networks in skyscrapers and multi-story buildings.

Path-Loss Models for Femtocellular Areas:

 Femtocells are very small cells, like a single room.
 Models for femtocells look at how signals interact with objects indoors.
 They're used in homes and small businesses to improve indoor coverage.
So, indoor propagation models help us design wireless networks that work effectively
in different indoor settings, from large buildings to small rooms. These models consider factors
like distance, materials, and obstacles to ensure a strong and reliable wireless signal indoors.

16. Describe the various Outdoor Propagation Models.

Outdoor propagation models help us understand how wireless signals travel in outdoor
environments. They're vital for planning outdoor wireless networks.
Longley-Rice/ITS Irregular Terrain Model:
 Imagine you're in an area with lots of hills and valleys, like a hilly countryside. This model
helps predict how radio signals travel in such terrains.
 It's like planning how far your Wi-Fi signal can reach in a place with many ups and downs.
 Factors like the shape of hills, the frequency of the signal, and even the weather play a role
in this prediction.
 So, if you're setting up wireless communication in hilly or uneven areas, you'd use this
model to figure out where to place antennas and how far signals can go.

Okumura Model:
 Now, think about a city or suburbs with lots of tall buildings and houses. This model focuses
on such urban and suburban areas.
 It's like planning your Wi-Fi in a neighborhood with lots of houses and apartment buildings.
 The model looks at things like how tall buildings are, the frequency of the signal, and how
high antennas are placed.
 This helps you figure out where to put cell towers or access points for the best coverage in
these areas.

Hata Model:
 The Hata model is similar to the Okumura model but with a few differences. It's used for
both urban and suburban areas.
 Imagine planning your Wi-Fi in a town where there are fewer tall buildings compared to a
big city.
 Just like the Okumura model, it considers antenna height, frequency, and the type of
environment (urban or suburban).
 This model helps you make sure you have good wireless coverage in areas with moderate
building density, like neighborhoods and smaller towns.
So, these outdoor propagation models are like planning tools for setting up Wi-Fi and cell
phone networks. They help you understand how signals move in different outdoor places,
whether it's hilly countryside, a bustling city, or a peaceful suburb. By considering things like
terrain, building height, and frequency, you can create networks that work well in these diverse
outdoor environments.

17. Define fading. Explain it with its types.

Fading:
Fading refers to the variation of the signal strength with respect to time/distance and is widely
prevalent in wireless transmissions. The most common causes of fading in the wireless
environment are multipath propagation and mobility (of objects as well as the communicating
devices).
It's when the signal strength from a cell tower or Wi-Fi router goes up and down as it travels
to your phone or device.
For example, Fading is like when the volume of your favourite song goes up and down while
listening on the radio.
Types of Fading:
1. Large-Scale Fading (Shadowing): Imagine you're walking and your phone signal gets
weaker when you pass a big building. That's large-scale fading. It happens because of
obstacles like hills, buildings, or even trees.
2. Small-Scale Fading (Multipath Fading): Think about when you hear an echo in a tunnel. In
wireless, signals bounce off things, creating echoes that arrive at your device at slightly
different times. These echoes can mix up the signal, causing small-scale fading.
3. Fast Fading: This is like when you're on a call, and suddenly, the other person's voice breaks
up for a moment. It's because the signal changes really quickly, maybe because you moved
a bit.
4. Slow Fading: Slow fading is more like when you're in an elevator. As it goes up or down,
the signal strength slowly changes. It's not as fast as fast fading.

So, fading is when your signal goes through ups and downs, and there are different types of
fading depending on how and where it happens.

18. Explain factors influencing fading.

Fading in wireless communication is caused by various factors, and understanding them is
crucial for designing reliable wireless systems. Here are the key factors that influence fading:
1. Multipath Propagation:
When a signal travels from a transmitter to a receiver, it can take multiple paths. These
paths can vary in length and may involve reflections, diffractions, and scattering. When the
delayed signals arrive at the receiver, they can interfere constructively or destructively, causing
variations in signal strength.
2. Distance from Transmitter:
As you move farther away from a transmitter, the signal strength naturally decreases.
This is known as path loss. The farther you are, the weaker the signal, and it's more susceptible
to fading.
3. Obstructions and Terrain:
Buildings, trees, hills, and other objects can block or reflect radio waves. Large
obstacles can cause shadowing, where signal strength is significantly reduced. Terrain
irregularities, such as hills or valleys, can also lead to fading.
4. Atmospheric Conditions:
Weather conditions, especially rain, can absorb and scatter radio waves, leading to
fading. This is known as rain attenuation. Additionally, atmospheric ducting can cause signal
ducting, where signals are trapped and travel long distances, resulting in fluctuations.
5. Receiver Movement:
If the receiver (e.g., a mobile phone) is in motion, it can experience fast fading due to
rapid changes in the received signal's phase and amplitude. This is particularly relevant in
mobile communication.
6. Antenna Height:
The height of antennas at both the transmitter and receiver can affect how signals
propagate. Higher antennas can reduce fading due to obstacles and terrain.
7. Transmitter Power:
The strength of the transmitted signal can impact fading. Higher transmitter power can
mitigate the effects of fading to some extent.
Understanding these factors allows engineers to design wireless systems that can mitigate the
effects of fading through techniques like diversity, equalization, and power control.

19. Illustrate the concept of diffraction.

Diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable
in size to its wavelength. Instead of traveling in straight lines, the waves bend around the edges of the
obstacle or pass through the slit and spread out.

In wireless communication, diffraction allows signals to bend around obstacles like buildings,
mountains, or other barriers, enabling the signal to reach areas that would otherwise be in shadow, or
"non-line-of-sight" regions. This bending of waves happens because the waves interact with the edges
of the obstacle, causing the energy to spread into the shadowed region.

The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the obstacle relative to the wavelength of the wave.
Longer wavelengths (lower frequencies) diffract more than shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies).
Diffraction is crucial in urban environments where buildings and other structures could obstruct the
direct line of sight between the transmitter and receiver.

20. Explain various types of diversity techniques and explain them in brief.

Types of Diversity Techniques in Wireless Communication

Diversity techniques are methods used in wireless communication to improve signal quality and reduce
the impact of fading and interference. Here are some common types:

Frequency Diversity Techniques:

Frequency diversity is a technique used in wireless communication to enhance the reliability and
performance of a transmission system by reducing the effects of fading and interference. In frequency
diversity, the same information is transmitted simultaneously over multiple frequency channels. Here's
a brief explanation of how it works and its benefits:

1. Working Principle:
o In frequency diversity, the transmitted signal is spread across several different frequency
channels. These frequencies are spaced apart so that if one frequency experiences fading
or interference, the others may remain unaffected. The receiver combines the signals
from the different frequencies to reconstruct the original information.
2. Benefits:
o Improved Signal Reliability: By transmitting over multiple frequencies, frequency
diversity ensures that even if one or more frequencies experience deep fades or
interference, the overall signal quality is maintained.
o Reduced Error Rates: The redundancy provided by using multiple frequencies
decreases the probability of data loss or errors, leading to better communication quality.
o Resilience to Fading: Multipath fading, where signals take different paths and can
interfere destructively, is less impactful when multiple frequencies are used, as it's
unlikely that all frequencies will experience fades simultaneously.
3. Applications:
o Frequency diversity is widely used in systems where high reliability is critical, such as
in military communication systems, satellite communication, and some forms of wireless
broadband.

In summary, frequency diversity enhances the robustness of wireless communication systems by

transmitting the same information over multiple frequency channels, which helps mitigate the effects of
fading and interference. This technique is essential for maintaining signal integrity in challenging
environments.
Space Diversity Techniques:

Space diversity is a method used to improve the reliability of a wireless communication system by
exploiting the spatial dimension. It involves using multiple antennas at different physical locations to
receive the same signal. Here’s how it works:

1. Antenna Separation:
o The basic idea is that when multiple antennas are placed at different locations, they experience
different signal fading conditions due to variations in the physical environment.
o If one antenna receives a weak signal due to fading, it’s likely that another antenna will receive
a stronger version of the same signal.
2. Combining Techniques:
o The signals from multiple antennas are combined to improve the overall signal quality. There are
several ways to combine these signals, including:
 Selection Combining: The strongest signal among the received signals is selected.
 Maximum Ratio Combining: All signals are weighted according to their signal strength
and combined.
 Equal Gain Combining: All signals are combined with equal weighting.
3. Application in Cellular Networks:
o Space diversity is widely used in cellular networks to combat fading and improve signal quality.
For instance, base stations often have multiple antennas placed at different heights or positions
to ensure that a reliable signal is received from mobile devices.
4. Advantages:
o Improved Signal Quality: By combining signals from multiple antennas, the overall signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) is improved, leading to better communication quality.
o Reduced Fading: Space diversity effectively reduces the impact of multipath fading, which is
common in wireless environments.

In summary, space diversity techniques enhance the reliability and quality of wireless communication
by using multiple antennas to receive signals at different spatial locations, thereby mitigating the effects
of signal fading.

Time Diversity:

 Explanation: This technique involves transmitting the same signal at different time intervals.
Due to the variability of fading over time, the signal is less likely to be affected by deep fading
at all the time slots. This technique can be implemented using repeated transmissions or
interleaving.
 Benefit: Reduces the likelihood of signal loss due to time-varying channel conditions, thus
improving signal reliability.

Polarization Diversity:

Polarization Diversity require two transmitter and two receiving antennas with different polarization.
The transmission wave with two different polarization constitute two different paths. This provide
only two different diversity branches. Polarization Diversity uses half power by dividing the power
between two different polarized antennas.

Angular Diversity:

It is also known as pattern diversity. This diversity allows the identical antennas to be located at same
location but with a different pattern. These two co-located antennas with different patterns will provide
a diverse path for multipath signal. It enhances the decorrelation of signal at closely spaced antennas.