CHAPTER 5

WIRELESS SYSTEMS

1. Explain the GSM Architecture.

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital
cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses the combination of FDMA and
TDMA.
GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :

 Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

 Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
 Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
 Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.
Features of GSM are :

 Supports international roaming

 Clear voice clarity
 Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
 Spectral / frequency efficiency
 Low powered handheld devices.
 Ease of accessing network
 International ISDN compatibility.
 Low service cost.
 New features and services.
GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.
1. BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between
a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two components BTS
and BSC.
2. NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of GSM.
That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present in
network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
3. OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network
operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to
offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.
Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is
connected to BTS through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC. Let’s understand
the functionality of different components.
1. MS :
MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed for
communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) +
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and that
tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises transmitter
and receiver. Transceiver has two performance of sending and receiving.
2. BTS :
BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless communication between
user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.
3. BSC :
BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider the BSC as
a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers have BTS.
4. MSC :
MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication switching
functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding all functions
are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further components like VLR, HLR, AUC,
EIR and PSTN.

 VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the
exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If
 you are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the database
of VLR.
 HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent
data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you purchase SIM card
from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which
plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.
 AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile
subscriber that wants to connect in the network.
 EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the
record of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network then
you can’t enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.
 PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with
MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost
entirely digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as
fixed telephones. The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but
PSTN.

5. OMC :
OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the performance
of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces.
Total three interfaces are there:
1. Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and BTS
is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.
2. Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
3. A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.

Services of GSM:
Tele services:

 Tele services are nothing but we use now as at also.

 Video calls.
 Video text and face emoji.
 short text message(SMS).
Supplementary services:

 supplementary services it means advanced services.

 Conference calls.
 Call waiting.
 Call forwarding.

GSM security:
  GSM offers several security using confidential information stored in the AUC and in
the individual SIM.
 The SIM stores personal secret data and is protected with a pin against unauthorized
use.
Advantages:
 Compatibility: GSM is widely used around the world, so it is compatible with many
different networks and devices.
 Security: GSM offers enhanced security features such as authentication, encryption and
confidentiality, which helps to protect the user’s privacy and data.
 Efficient use of bandwidth: GSM uses a time-division multiplexing (TDM) technique
which enables many users to share the same frequency channel at different times,
making it an efficient use of the available bandwidth.
 Roaming: GSM allows users to roam internationally and use their mobile phones in
other countries that use the same GSM standard.
 Wide range of features: GSM supports a wide range of features, including call
forwarding, call waiting, voicemail, conference calling, and more.
Disadvantages:
 Limited coverage: GSM networks may have limited coverage in some remote areas,
which can make it difficult for users to make calls or access the internet.
 Network congestion: GSM networks may become congested during peak hours, which
can lead to dropped calls or poor call quality.
 Security vulnerabilities: Although GSM offers enhanced security features, it is still
vulnerable to certain types of attacks, such as eavesdropping and spoofing.
 Data transfer speed: GSM networks offer relatively slow data transfer speeds compared
to newer technologies such as 3G and 4G.
 Limited capacity: GSM networks have a limited capacity for handling large volumes of
data, which can be a disadvantage for users who require high-speed internet access or
other data-intensive applications.
Hence, this is the complete architecture and functionalities of GSM components.

2. Explain the Authentication and security in GSM.

Authentication In GSM:
1. The security procedures in GSM are aimed at protecting the network against unauthorized
access and protecting the privacy of mobile subscriber against eavesdropping,
2. Eavesdropping on subscriber communication is prevented by ciphering the information.
3. To protect identity and location of the subscriber the appropriate signalling channels are
ciphered and Temporary Subscriber Identity (TMSI) instead of IMSI is used over the radio
path.
4. At the time of initiating a service, the mobile terminal is powered on the subscriber may be
required to enter 4-8 digits Password Identification Number (PIN) to validate the ownership
of the SIM.
5. At the time of service provisioning the IMSI, the individual subscriber authentication key
(Ki), the authentication algorithm (A3), the cipher key generation algorithm (A8) and the
encryption algorithm (A5) are programmed into the SIM by GSM operator.
6. The A3 ciphering algorithm is used to authenticate each mobile by verifying the user
password within the SIM with the cryptographic key at the MSC. The A5 ciphering
algorithm is used for encryption. It provides scrambling for 114 coded bits sent in each TS.
The A8 is used for ciphering key.
7. The IMSI and the secret authentication key (Ki) are specific to each mobile station, the
authentication algorithm A3 and A8 are different for different networks and operators
encryption algorithm A5 is unique and needs to be used across all GSM network operators.
8. The authentication centre is responsible for all security aspects and its function is closely
linked with HLR.
9. The secret authentication key (Ki) is not known to mobile user and is the property of service
provider, the home system of the mobile station (MS) generates the random number say
Rand which is 126 bit number. This random number is sent to MS. The MS uses A3
algorithm to authenticate the user. The algorithm A3 uses Ki and Rand number to generate
a signed result called s_RES. MS sends s_RES to home system of MS.
10. In the home system authentication contains Ki and it also uses the same authentication
algorithm A3 to authenticate the valid user. The A3 algorithm use Ki and Rand generated
by home system to generate a signed result called〖(s〗_RES). The s_RES generated by
MS and authentication centre are compared. If both s_RES are identical only then the user
is valid and access is granted otherwise not.
Security in GSM:
GSM allows three-band phones to be used seamlessly in more than 160 countries. In GSM,
security is implemented in three entities:
1) Subscriber identity module (SIM) contains authentication key Ki (64-bit), ciphering key
(Kc) generating algorithm, and authentication algorithm. SIM is a single chip computer
containing the operating system (OS), the file system, and applications. SIM is protected by a
PIN and owned by an operator. SIM applications can be written with a SIM tool kit.
2) GSM handset contains ciphering algorithm.
3) Network uses algorithms and IDs that are stored in the authentication center.
Degree of security in GSM is higher basic security mechanisms are:
a) Access control and authentication :It prevents access by unregistered users.
b) Encryption: It prevents unauthorized listening.
c) Confidentiality: It prevents subscriber’s location discloser.

3. Write Short Note : Hand Over

 Handoff (or handover) is a control process initiated when a mobile moves from its
current cell to its neighbouring cell.
 A user of a mobile phone will be moving continuously. In such a situation, the mobile
connection should also remain intact especially if the user is currently using the phone.
 This transfer of connection from one cell to another should be quick and in such a
manner that user doesn’t actually realize that a handoff has happened.
 There are four basic types of handoffs in GSM network:
a) Intra-cell handover:
Such a kind of handover is performed to optimize the traffic load in the cell or to improve
quality of a connection by changing carrier frequency.

b) Inter-cell handover:
 It is also known as Intra-BSC handover.
  Here the mobile moves from one cell to another but remains within the same BSC
(Base station controller).
 Here the BSC handles the handover process

c) Inter-BSC handover:
 It is also called as Intra-MSC handover.
 As BSC can control only a limited number of cells, we might usually need to transfer
a mobile from one BSC to another BSC.
 Here the MSC handles the handover process.

d) Inter-MSC handover:
 It occurs when a mobile moves from one MSC region to another MSC.
 MSC cover a large area. It can be imagined as a handover from Maharashtra MSC to
Gujarat MSC while travelling.
4. Explain the Wireless Protocol.
A wireless protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices
communicate with each other in a wireless network.

 Establishing Communication: Wireless protocols define how devices connect and

communicate wirelessly. They set the standards for how data is transmitted, received,
and interpreted between devices.
 Data Exchange: These protocols determine how data is packaged, transmitted, and
unpackaged at the receiving end. They ensure that data is sent and received accurately.
 Interoperability: Wireless protocols ensure that different devices from various
manufacturers can communicate effectively. This is crucial for creating a seamless
wireless network with a variety of devices.
 Security: Protocols include security measures to protect data from unauthorized access
and eavesdropping. This includes encryption and authentication methods.
 Efficiency: They also address network efficiency, minimizing data collisions and
ensuring that devices can share the wireless spectrum effectively.
In summary, a wireless protocol is a set of rules that makes wireless communication
possible by defining how devices connect, exchange data, ensure security, and maintain
interoperability. These protocols are essential for the smooth and secure operation of wireless
networks.
List of common wireless protocols used in various wireless communication systems:

 Wi-Fi (802.11): Wi-Fi is a widely used wireless protocol for local area networks
(LANs). It includes various standards like 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n,
802.11ac, and 802.11ax, each offering different speeds and frequency bands.
 Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a short-range wireless protocol used for connecting devices like
headphones, speakers, and keyboards to smartphones and computers. It's known for its
energy efficiency and versatility.
 Zigbee: Zigbee is a low-power wireless protocol commonly used in home automation
and Internet of Things (IoT) applications. It's designed for low data rate and low-power
devices.

5. Discuss the concept of spread spectrum.

"Spread Spectrum is a technique in which the transmitted signals of specific frequencies are
varied slightly to obtain greater bandwidth as compared to initial bandwidth."
Now, spread spectrum technology is widely used in radio signals transmission because it can
easily reduce noise and other signal issues.
Example of Spread Spectrum
We know that a conventional wireless signal frequency is usually specified in megahertz (MHz)
or gigahertz (GHz). It does not change with time (Sometimes it is exceptionally changedin the
form of small, rapid fluctuations that generally occur due to modulation). Suppose you
want to listen to FM stereo at frequency 104.8 MHz on your radio, and then once you set the
frequency, the signal stays at 104.8 MHz. It does not go up to 105.1 MHz or down to 101.1
MHz. You see that your set digits on the radio's frequency dial stay the same at all times. The
frequency of a conventional wireless signal is kept as constant to keep bandwidth within certain
limits, and the signal can be easily located by someone who wants to retrieve the information.

In this conventional wireless communication model, one can face at least two problems:
1. A signal whose frequency is constant is subject to catastrophic interference. This
interference occurs when another signal is transmitted on or near the frequency of a
specified signal.
2. A constant-frequency signal can easily be intercepted. So, it is not suitable for the
applications in which information must be kept confidential between the source
(transmitting party) and the receiver.
The spread spectrum model is used to overcome with this conventional communication model.
Here, the transmitted signal frequency is deliberately varied over a comparatively large
segment of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. This variation is done according to a
specific but complicated mathematical function. If the receiver wants to intercept the signal, it
must be tuned to frequencies that vary precisely according to this function.

Reasons to use Spread Spectrum:

 Spread spectrum signals are distributed over a wide range of frequencies and then
collected and received back to the receiver. On the other hand, wide-band signals are
noise-like and challenging to detect.
 Initially, the spread spectrum was adopted in military applications because of its
resistance to jamming and difficulty intercepting.
 Now, this is also used in commercial wireless communication.
 It is most preferred because of its useful bandwidth utilization ability.

Usage of Spread Spectrum:

There are many reasons to use this spread spectrum technique for wireless communications.
The following are some reasons:
 It can successfully establish a secure medium of communication.
 It can increase the resistance to natural interference, such as noise and jamming, to
prevent detection.
 It can limit the power flux density (e.g., in satellite down links).
 It can enable multiple-access communications.
Types of Spread Spectrum:
Spread Spectrum can be categorized into two types:
1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

 The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us to utilize bandwidth
properly and maximum. In this technique, the whole available bandwidth is divided
into many channels and spread between channels, arranged continuously.
 The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency signals are transmitted
according to their occupancy.
 The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels available for a particular
amount of time in milliseconds.
 So, you can see that it implements the frequency division multiplexing and time-
division multiplexing simultaneously in FHSS.

Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a specific frequency or same
frequency.
Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and then transmitted on different
frequencies.
Applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
Following is the list of most used applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or
FHSS:
  The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is used in wireless local area
networks (WLAN) standard for Wi-Fi.
 FHSS is also used in the wireless personal area networks (WPAN) standard for
Bluetooth.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread-spectrum modulation technique
primarily used to reduce overall signal interference in telecommunication. The Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum modulation makes the transmitted signal wider in bandwidth
than the information bandwidth. In DSSS, the message bits are modulated by a bit
sequencing process known as a spreading sequence. This spreading-sequence bit is known
as a chip. It has a much shorter duration (larger bandwidth) than the original message bits.
Following are the features of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS.

 In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS technique, the data that needs to be
transmitted is split into smaller blocks.
 After that, each data block is attached with a high data rate bit sequence and is
transmitted from the sender end to the receiver end.
 Data blocks are recombined again to generate the original data at the receiver's end,
which was sent by the sender, with the help of the data rate bit sequence.
 If somehow data is lost, then data blocks can also be recovered with those data rate
bits.
 The main advantage of splitting the data into smaller blocks is that it reduces the
noise and unintentional inference.

Applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is used in LAN technology.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is also used in Satellite communication
technology.
 DSSS is used in the military and many other commercial applications.
 It is used in the low probability of the intercept signal.
 It supports Code division multiple access.

6. Outline architecture of IS-95 CDMA system with neat sketch.

 As shown in above Figure, the architecture of IS 95 is same as that of GSM. The roles of
BTS,BSC,MSC, VLR,HLR remain the same except inclusion of Interworking Function (IWF).
(For other components refer GSM architecture components.)

Interworking Function (IWF):

It is a technique for interfacing data between a wireless system and the telephone network;
involves the use of modems or data terminal adapters to convert the data transmitted over the air
interface and mobile network to a format that can be recognized and carried by the public
telecommunications network. The reader should note that although the architecture looks similar
to GSM, the principle of operation and the air specification is totally different.

7. Explain difference between GSM and CDMA.

Serial No. GSM CDMA

1. Full form Global System for Mobile Code Division Multiple

global communication. Access.

FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple

2. Technology CDMA(Code Division
Access) and TDMA (Time Division
used Multiple Access).
Multiple Access).

GSM is globally widely used and CDMA is available in fewer

3. Availability
available. countries and carriers.

4. Data speed
42Mbps in HSPA (3G). 3.6Mbps in CDMA.
rate

GSM supports transmitting data and CDMA does not support this
5.Features
voice both at once. feature.

6. Customer
Stored in a SIM card. Stored in a headset or phone.
Information

GSM does not provide built-in CDMA provides built-in

7. Encryption
encryption is available. encryption.

GSM offers less secure CDMS offers secure

8. Secure
communication. communication.

CDMA enables limited

9. Roaming GSM enables worldwide roaming.
roaming.
 There are no such
There is always a requirement of SIM
10. SIM Card requirements for CDMA
card for a GSM device to function.
phones.

When a SIM on a phone stops When a CDMA on a phone

11. Flexibility working, we can use another SIM ceases operating, we must
rather than purchasing a new phone. purchase a new phone.

13. Type of GSM technology operates on a wedge CDMA technology is based on

Spectrum spectrum known as carrier. spread spectrum technology.

8. Explain the GPRS Architecture.

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service. It is the modified version of GSM
architecture. GPRS is a packet-oriented mobile data mechanism, that can carry data packets as
well. In GSM architecture, only voice signals can be transported, so being an enhanced version
GPRS is able to transmit voice as well as data packets. It uses the same physical radio channel
as GSM does, the only difference is it has a new logic defined for the radio channel.

GPRS Network Architecture:

GPRS tries to make maximum use of the existing physical structure of GSM. It has introduced
a new entity named GPRS support nodes(GSN) whose responsibility is to route and deliver a
data packet. GSN is of two types:
 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGNS)
 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGNS)

Components of GPRS Architecture:

Mobile Station(MS):
GPRC requires enhanced mobile stations, as existing mobile stations were designed according
to the GSM network, and they were unable in handling enhanced data packets. A variety of
high-speed mobile stations are available to support enhanced data packets. These mobile
stations are also capable of handling the GSM architecture to make voice calls.
 Base Station Subsystem (BSC):
In GSM architecture there is one component called BSC. But in GPRS there is one component
is added to BSC called PCU. PCU stands for Packet Control Unit. If the signal comes to BSC
and that signal contains data, then PCU routes to the SGSN. The interface is used between BSC
and PCU is the FRI interface. After the signal comes to SGSN, it delivers the data packet to the
GGSN. GGSN routes the data packet to the data network (PDN- Predefined Data Network).
GPRS Support Nodes:
GPRS support nodes are of two types:
1. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

 It is responsible for the following tasks:

o Packet Delivery
o Mobility management
o Authentication
o billing
2. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
It is responsible for the following tasks:

 Mediator between GPRS between backbone and external data networks.

 Saves current data for the SGSN address of the participant as well as their profile and
data for authentication and invoice.
Mobility Support:
GPRS has the following mechanism to support mobility in the network:
 Attachment Procedure
 Location and Handoff Management
9. Explain Voice and Data Routing in GPRS with proper diagram.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet-switched network technology that allows
mobile devices to send and receive data over a cellular network. Unlike voice services, which are
circuit-switched, GPRS is optimized for data transmission. Below is an explanation of how both
voice and data routing occurs in a GPRS network.
1. Voice Routing in GPRS

In GPRS, voice calls are handled by the traditional GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) network, which uses circuit-switched technology.

 Step-by-Step Process:
o Mobile Station (MS): The mobile phone (MS) initiates a call.
o Base Station Subsystem (BSS): The voice call is first routed to the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS), and then through the Base Station Controller
(BSC).
o Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The BSC routes the call to the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC), which is the central hub for managing voice calls.
o PSTN or Another Mobile: The MSC either routes the call to the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) for external calls or to another mobile user in the
same network. The call path remains open for the entire duration of the call.

Voice routing is continuous and connection-oriented because voice traffic requires real-time,
uninterrupted transmission.

2. Data Routing in GPRS

GPRS uses a packet-switched approach to transmit data, meaning data is divided into packets and
routed individually to the destination.

 Step-by-Step Process:
o Mobile Station (MS): The mobile phone or data device initiates a data session
(such as browsing the internet or sending an email).
o Base Station Subsystem (BSS): The request for data transmission is sent to the
BTS and forwarded to the BSC, just like in the case of voice calls.
o Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): From the BSC, the data packet is sent to
the SGSN, which is responsible for managing data sessions. It handles mobility
management and ensures that the mobile user can access the data services.
o Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): The SGSN routes the data packets to
the GGSN, which acts as a gateway between the GPRS network and external
packet-switched networks like the internet. The GGSN assigns an IP address to
the mobile device and routes packets to and from external data networks.
o Internet or External Network: The GGSN sends data to the internet or another
external network, allowing the user to browse the web, download files, or send
emails.

The key difference between voice and data routing is that GPRS data is sent in packets, allowing
multiple users to share the same bandwidth. The connection is not constant and only occurs when
data needs to be transmitted, making it more efficient for non-real-time services like email and
web browsing.

 For Voice Routing: The path follows the BTS → BSC → MSC → PSTN or another
mobile.
 For Data Routing: The path follows the BTS → BSC → SGSN → GGSN → Internet.

Key Components:

 Mobile Station (MS): The user's device that initiates the voice or data session.
 Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Manages communication between the mobile station
and the network.
  Base Station Controller (BSC): Controls multiple BTSs and routes traffic to the
appropriate core network components.
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Manages circuit-switched voice calls.
 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): Routes data packets and manages mobility.
 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Acts as a bridge between the GPRS network
and external packet-switched networks like the internet.
 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): The global telephone network used for
routing voice calls.

Conclusion:

In GPRS, voice and data are routed separately. Voice is handled by the circuit-switched part of
the network (GSM), while data is managed through the packet-switched GPRS core, involving
the SGSN and GGSN. This separation allows for the efficient handling of both real-time and non-
real-time services within a mobile network.