2.3.

Water pollution and treatments

Discussion questions

• when do you say a water is polluted?

• list the different type of water pollutants, their possible sources, and
what environmental and human health effects do they have?
• Is the eutrophication of a lake a pollution problem? Why?
• How thermal stratification affect the composition or quality of water in
lake?
• what is the most widespread source of surface and ground water
pollution in Ethiopia?
• Find priority lists of pollutants of Ethiopia and any other emerging
country? Give primary standards of these pollutants?
• what are the different classes of wastewaters and the major
characteristics of these categories of wastewaters?
 Water pollution
• Humans depend on very small reservoirs of water for all
our needs
• Water that has been withdrawn from these reservoirs
used for some purposes, and then returned.
• As they cycle/return they can either:
– collect pollution from other sources, or
– be cleaned by passing through functioning ecosystems
• However, in the current state of the world's
industrialization, it has become increasingly difficult to
find water in its pure state (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 Industrial sources of water contamination
 Water pollution--cont’d

• Fresh waters- consists of rivers, lakes, ponds or seas, streams and

groundwater having self-purification capacity is negatively influenced by
microorganims and chemicals, sludge deposits, wastewater discharge
which have:
– Physical- insoluble admixture of inorganic and organic origin which is
either dispersed in water or form sediments as a result a water acquires
an undesirable turbidity and color,
– Biological- caused by toxic substances, organic degradation,
pathogens and radioactive substances
– Chemical nature- caused by water soluble admixture of solid, liquid
and gases such as free acids, nutrients, salts of heavy metals
 Water Pollution Problems
• Water is considered to be polluted when it contains enough foreign
materials to render it unfit for a specific beneficial use.
• In order to understand the effect of water pollution and the technology
applied in its control, it is useful to classify pollutants
• Water pollution problems can be divided into eight groups:
1) The discharge of biodegradable organic waste, which consumes oxygen by
the processes of mineralization..
2) The discharge of nutrients from fertilizers, which might cause eutrophication
problems,
3) Pathogenic organisms ((bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths)
4) The discharge of hydrocarbons into marine ecosystems
5) The discharge of toxic compounds, such as pesticides and PCB, heavy metals
and others
6) Radioactive substances
7) Thermal
8) Sediment
Fig. the most important pollutants that cause impairments of water quality in
lakes and reservoirs
Common Pollutants and Their Properties
• US EPA lists 129 priority pollutants in water (114 organic and 15
inorganic). This list should be regarded as dynamic.

• Grown from 5 in 1940

• many other countries have similar priority pollutant lists reflecting their
pollution sources and monitoring priorities.

Assignment 2: Find priority lists of China and Ethiopia showing trends

in no. of pollutants added every year (if exists!)
001 Acenaphthene 051 Chlorodibromomethane 101 Heptachlor epoxide (BHC-hexachlorocyclohexane)

Basics of Environmental Sampling and Analysis

002 Acrolein
003 Acrylonitrile
004 Benzene
052
053
054
Hexachlorobutadiene
Hexachloromyclopentadiene
Isophorone
102
103
104
Alpha-BHC
Beta-BHC
Gamma-BHC (lindane)
005 Benzidine 055 Naphthalene
Essential Analytical and Organic Chemistry
006 Carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane) 056 Nitrobenzene
105
106
Delta-BHC (PCB-polychlorinated biphenyls)
PCB–1242 (Arochlor 1242)
007 Chlorobenzene 057 2-nitrophenol 107 PCB–1254 (Arochlor 1254)
008 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 058 4-nitrophenol 108 PCB–1221 (Arochlor 1221)
009 Hexachlorobenzene 059 2,4-dinitrophenol 109 PCB–1232 (Arochlor 1232)
010 1,2-dichloroethane 060 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol 110 PCB–1248 (Arochlor 1248)
011 1,1,1-trichloreothane 061 N-nitrosodimethylamine 111 PCB–1260 (Arochlor 1260)
012 Hexachloroethane 062 N-nitrosodiphenylamine 112 PCB–1016 (Arochlor 1016)
013 1,1-dichloroethane 063 N-nitrosodi-n-propylamin 113 Toxaphene
014 1,1,2-trichloroethane 064 Pentachlorophenol 114 Antimony
015 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane 065 Phenol 115 Arsenic
016 Chloroethane 066 Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 116 Asbestos
018 Bis(2-chloroethyl) ether 067 Butyl benzyl phthalate 117 Beryllium
019 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether (mixed) 068 Di-N-Butyl Phthalate 118 Cadmium
020 2-chloronaphthalene 069 Di-n-octyl phthalate 119 Chromium
021 2,4, 6-trichlorophenol 070 Diethyl Phthalate 120 Copper
022 Parachlorometa cresol 071 Dimethyl phthalate 121 Cyanide, Total
023 Chloroform (trichloromethane) 072 1,2-benzanthracene (benzo(a) anthracene 122 Lead
024 2-chlorophenol 073 Benzo(a)pyrene (3,4-benzo-pyrene) 123 Mercury
025 1,2-dichlorobenzene 074 3,4-Benzofluoranthene (benzo(b) fluoranthene) 124 Nickel
026 1,3-dichlorobenzene 075 11,12-benzofluoranthene (benzo(b) fluoranthene) 125 Selenium
027 1,4-dichlorobenzene 076 Chrysene 127 Thallium
028 3,3-dichlorobenzidine 077 Acenaphthylene 126 Silver
029 1,1-dichloroethylene 078 Anthracene 128 Zinc
030 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene 079 1,12-benzoperylene (benzo(ghi) perylene) 129 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)
031 2,4-dichlorophenol 080 Fluorene
032 1,2-dichloropropane 081 Phenanthrene
033 1,2-dichloropropylene (1,3-dichloropropene) 082 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene (dibenzo(,h) anthracene)
034 2,4-dimethylphenol 083 Indeno (,1,2,3-cd) pyrene (2,3-o-pheynylene pyrene)
035 2,4-dinitrotoluene 084 Pyrene
036 2,6-dinitrotoluene 085 Tetrachloroethylene
037 1,2-diphenylhydrazine 086 Toluene
038 Ethylbenzene 087 Trichloroethylene
039 Fluoranthene 088 Vinyl chloride (chloroethylene)
040 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether 089 Aldrin
041 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether 090 Dieldrin
042 Bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether 091 Chlordane (technical mixture and metabolites)
043 Bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane 092 4,4-DDT
044 Methylene chloride (dichloromethane) 093 4,4-DDE (p,p-DDX)
045 Methyl chloride (dichloromethane) 094 4,4-DDD (p,p-TDE)
046 Methyl bromide (bromomethane) 095 Alpha-endosulfan
047 Bromoform (tribromomethane) 096 Beta-endosulfan
048 Dichlorobromomethane 097 Endosulfan sulfate
049 REMOVED 098 Endrin
050 REMOVED 099 Endrin aldehyde
100 Heptachlor
 Effects and significance of pollutants in
natural waters
• The impact of the various substances listed above may
result in low-quality water:

• Carcinogenic and toxic: due to high conc. Of heavy metals and

chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Damage physically, inhibit growth and productivity,
infections, health effects, eutrophication (due to pathogenic bacteria,
viruses and e.t.c)
• Aesthetics ( odor, tastes and colors)
• Deplete Dissolved Oxygen level
• Increase water salinity and change pH level
 Sources of pollutants

• At present major sources of surface and ground water

pollution include:

1) Domestic sewage- is a primary source of 1,2, and 3

2) Pesticides and fertilizer from agricultural lands
3) Leachate from solid waste disposal sites
4) Industrial effluents

• Since water pollutants may arise from different sources, it

is important to have markers of water pollution that are
indicative of the sources. Example herbicides- agriculture
wastes, Fecal coliform-domestic sources, etc.
Fig. the leading source of those pollutants vs percent of lake acres impaired by
source of pollution
Water pollution----cont’d

A pollutant can also be classified according to the nature

of its origin:
Natural
Man-made

as either:
point source or
non-point source .
Point Sources

• Single large source

• Can localize it to one spot
– Industrial Plants
– Sewage pipes
Non-point Sources
• Diffuse source or many
smaller point sources
• Automobiles
• Fertilizer on fields
Illustrative figures: Sources, type and effect of pollutants
 Water quality and analysis
• Quality:
– The totality features and characteristics of an
entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated
and implied needs
– Meeting the agreed requirements of the
customer
• Agreed: research, discussion, clarification and
negotiation.
• Requirements: both needs and expectations
• Customer: the end user, the general public,
regulatory bodies and legislative bodies
 Cont.
• Related definitions for quality:
– Fitness for intended use
– Excellent
– Reliable (time bounded)
• It is an every day word and every bodies
business
 Cont.
• Who are responsible for quality?
– Legislative bodies-----provide laws used to
define acceptable emission and establish standards
that govern quality of water for different use
– Regulatory agencies--- set/develop standards
– The scientific and engineering community-
provides technical guidance as well as the technology
used to achieve those standards.
 Cont’d
• The starting point for water quality assessments is a
designation of the beneficial uses that individual bodies
of water shall be required to support.
• For instance, beneficial uses of surface water includes:
– Aquatic life support
– Fish consumption
– Drinking water supply
– Recreation
– Agriculture

Note: Water tanks and reservoirs are prone to bacterial growth if the
residual chlorine levels in them are low or non-existent.
Bacteriological tests should be done at least half-yearly.
 Cont’d

• Drinking water standards fall into two categories:

primary standards- which specify maximum
contaminant level(MCLs), based on health related
criteria, and is setting considering technological and
economical feasibility, and
secondary standards- which are unenforceable
guidelines based on aesthetics such as taste, color, odor
and non-aesthetics characteristics corrosively and
hardness. maximum contaminant level goals(MCLGs)
are set at levels that present no known or anticipated
health effects.
 Parameters analyzed include:

• pH, Conductivity, Turbidity,

• Phenol, Oil and Grease
Color, odor, temperature
• Cyanide
• Dissolved Oxygen
• TOC
• Fluoride, Chloride
• Metals (by AA),
• Alkalinity, Acidity
• Organics (by GC)
• Hardness
• total Coliform
• TSS, TDS, TVS, TS
• fecal coliform (Escherichia
• Nitrite N, Nitrate N, Sulfate
coli is the predominant
• Arsenic species)
• BOD, COD
• TKN,Ammonia
• Phosphorus, Total
Table : sample water analysis report for drinking water

Parameter Unit Test Requirement Methods

Remarks
Physical & Chemical :
 Colour Pt. Co scale 3 15 Colorimetric
 Odour Pt. Co scale negative odourless Organoleptic
 pH Pt. Co scale 6.50 6.5-8.5 Electrometric
 Taste Pt. Co scale normal tasteless Organoleptic
 Turbity FTU 1 5 Turbidity
 Aluminum mg/l below 0.20 0.2 AAS
 Copper mg/l below 0.03 1.0 AAS
 Iron Total mg/l below 0.04 0.3 AAS
 Manganese mg/l 0.06 0.1 AAS
 Sodium mg/l 96.93 200 AAS
 Zinc mg/l 0.047 5 AAS
 Chloride mg/l 140.41 250 Argentometri
c
 Flouride mg/l 0.09 1.5 Colorimetric
 Nitrate mg/l below 0.11 10 Colorimetric
 Nitrite mg/l 0.96 1 Colorimetric
 Sulphate mg/l below 0.94 400 Turbidimetric
 Arsenic mg/l below 0.001 0.05 AAS
 Cont’d

 Barium mg/l below 0.10 1 AAS

 Cadmium mg/l below 0.005 0.005 AAS
 Cyanide mg/l below 0.01 0.1 Colorimetric
 Cr(VI) mg/l below 0.006 0.05 Colorimetric
 Lead mg/l below 0.01 0.05 AAS
 Mercury mg/l below 0.001 0.001 AAS
 Selenium mg/l below 0.007 0.01 AAS
 COD mg/l 3.06 10 Permanganant
volometric
 Dissolved mg/l 431 1000-1500 Gravimetric
Solid
 H2S mg/l below 0.01 0.05 Colorimetric
 Total mg CaCO3 95.49 500 AAS
Hardness
alkalinity mg/l 500
Bacteriological:
 Total Bacteria per ml 6.9 x 102 1.0 x 102 Pour Plate
 Total Coliform per 100 ml nil nil Filtration
 E. Coli per 100 ml nil nil Filtration
 Salmonella sp per 100 ml negative negative Filtration
 Why we treat water and
wastewater?
• The demand of clean water is much less than the supply
• Water withdrawals directly from rivers, lakes or reservoirs is
rarely clean enough for human consumption if not treated
– For over two billion people in the developing countries of the
world, access to safe drinking water is simply not possible
to day.
• The pollution of recipient water ( i.e .the area into which
wastewaters are discharged ) worsening its quality and limits or
renders impossible subsequent utilization.
– Deterioration of water quality is generally of physical,
chemical and biological nature. Hence evaluating the effect
of discharged wastewaters on the quality of water in the
recipient and protecting against it is important
 Cont’d
• With the general objective of treatment of water for:
– Protecting/ maintaining water quality
– Modifying it for a particular purpose
• The treatment of water may be divided in to three major
categories:
– Purification for domestic use
– Treatment for specified industrial applications
– Treatment of wastewater to make it acceptable for release
or reuse.

• Selection of the optimum wastewater and water treatments is

a very complex problem requires the application of the
different principles and requires a comprehensive knowledge
of the treatment methods available.
 Cont’d

Fig. Example of good water management practice

Treatment ---cont’d
Almost all unit operations applied for water and waste
water treatment mentioned in different materials are:

Note: Some of the individual operations can, however, be used to solve more
than one pollution problem.
Drinking water Treatment/purification

• The type and degree of treatment are strongly dependent

upon the source and intended use of the water.
 Sequence of steps for surface water
treatment.
• Screening, to remove relatively large floating and
suspended debris.
• Chemical application: Mixing the water with chemicals
that encourage suspended solids to coagulate into larger
particles, which will settle more easily.

– Aluminum sulfate (“alum”)

Coagulation
– Activated charcoal
Removes objectionable tastes and odors

Fig. Typical treatment of ground water.

 Drinking water Treatments
• Flocculation: which is the process of gently mixing the water
and coagulant (alum, Al2(SO4)3.18H2O,FeCl3, and FeSO4)
allowing the formation of large particles of floc.

Mixing Basins
– Alum chemically reacts to form “floc”
• Gelatinous particles
– Water in mixing basins is stirred
• Promotes collisions betwen floc particles
– Floc particles grow in size
• Entrain bacteria and sediment

• Sedimentation: in which the flow is slowed enough so that

gravity will cause the floc to settle, and filtration in which the
effluent is cleaned
 Drinking water Treatment
Settling Basins
– Flocculated material settles out and is piped to
wastewater treatment plant
Sand Filters
– Hydrated lime added to minimize corrosion
– Polishing operation

• Sludge Processing, in which the mixture of solids and liquids

collected from the settling tank is dewatered and disposed of.
Drinking water Treatment

• Disinfection(Cl2, NaOCl, Ca(OCl)2), of the liquid effluent

to ensure that the water is free of harmful pathogens.
Hardness removal can be added to this generalized flow
diagram if source is ground water.
Filtered-water reservoir
– Chlorination
– Caustic soda to minimize corrosiveness of polished water
– Gravity flow to pumping stations
 Drinking water Treatment
Softening

Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling the water

 Drinking water Treatment

• There are two principal methods of softening water for

municipal purposes; by lime and lime-soda and ion
exchange.
– The first method is based upon precipitation of calcium as
calcium carbonate and magnesium as magnesium hydroxide.
 Drinking water Treatment
– In ion exchange softening, the calcium and magnesium ions are
exchanged for monovalent ions, usually sodium and hydrogen.
This is termed "cation exchange softening"
Wastewaters treatment and disposal
• Wastewaters is the general term used to describe any water
whose quality has been changed after its use in human
habitations (municipal), industry and agricultural installations.
• Municipal wastewater is typically over 99.9% water. The
remaining portion can be categorized as:
– TDS + SS = TS ---concentration 200-1000 mg/l
– BOD5 ----100-300
– COD-----250-1000
– TKN-----20-80
– TP--------5-20

• Treatment function
– To speed up natural processes by which water purifies itself
– DO is the key!
Schematic overview of wastewater treatment
Typical US national discharge elimination system effluent
limitations for water pollution control

• Effluent limits are based on the best conventional technology which

includes a combination of primary, secondary and sometimes tertiary
treatment
Overview of the key terms referred to as are
primary, secondary, and tertiary/advanced
treatment.
Wastewater treatment---cont’d
• Wastewater treatment plant is usually designed as providing:
– Primary treatment- include physical processes such as screening and
sedimentation followed by disinfection
– Secondary treatment- aimed at removing most of BOD(85%) but not that
much effective in removing <1/2 of nitrogen and <1/3 of phosphorus

– Advanced/tertiary waste treatment- to satisfy any of the several specific

goals, which include the removal of (1) suspended solids (2) BOD (3) plant
nutrients (4) dissolved solids and (5) toxic substances.
These methods may be introduced for complete removal of pollutants after
secondary treatment.
• Ion exchange, Reverse osmosis, Electrodialysis for removal of dissolved
solids ,
• ammonia stripping for Removal of nitrogen
• Chemical and biological means of Phosphate removal
• Adsorption and
• Sludge treatment and disposal
The Wastewater Treatment Process