Notes on Redox Reactions

1. Redox Reaction: A chemical reaction where both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
2. Concepts
a. Oxidation:
i. Earlier Concept: Addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.
ii. Electronic Concept: Loss of electrons.
iii. Oxidation State Concept: Increase in oxidation state.
b. Reduction:
i. Earlier Concept: Addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen.
ii. Electronic Concept: Gain of electrons.
iii. Oxidation State Concept: Decrease in oxidation state.

3. Agents in Redox Reactions

1. Oxidising Agent (Oxidant):

o Oxidizes other elements but is reduced itself.
o Example: O in MgO
2. Reducing Agent (Reductant):
o Reduces other elements but is oxidized itself.
o Example: Mg in MgO

4. Oxidation State (O.N.)

a. The charge an atom appears to have when other atoms are removed as ions.
Examples:
5. Rules
6. Why Does Fluorine Not Undergo Disproportionation in Alkaline Medium?

 Reason:
Fluorine is the most electronegative element and cannot exhibit a positive oxidation
state.
o As a result, it cannot simultaneously undergo oxidation and reduction.

7. Why is Fluorine the Strongest Oxidizing Agent?

1. Small Size: High charge density enhances its ability to attract electrons.
2. Most Electronegative Element: Strong attraction for electrons.
3. Limited Oxidation States: Fluorine can only exhibit −1-1−1, which makes it a powerful
electron acceptor

8. Stock Notation
9. Definition
 Stock Notation is a system used to represent the oxidation
number of a metal in a compound.
 The oxidation number is written in Roman numerals within
parentheses immediately after the symbol or name of the metal
10.
 Questions
1. Find the oxidation state of underlined elements:

2. In the reactions given below, identify the species undergoing oxidation and reduction:

(i) H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S (i) H2S is oxidised , Chlorine is reduced.

(ii)3Fe3O4 + 8Al → 9Fe + 4Al2O3 (ii) Aluminium is oxidized, Fe3O4 is reduced.
(iii) 2Na + H2 → 2NaH
(iii) Na is oxidised and hydrogen is reduced.

3. Justify that the reaction : 2Na + H2 → 2NaH is a redox change.

Sodium is oxidised and hydrogen is reduced, therefore, the complete reaction is a
redox change.
4. Justify that the reaction: 2Cu2O(s) + Cu2S(s) → 6Cu(s) + SO2(g) is a redox reaction.
Identify the species oxidised/reduced, which acts as an oxidant and which acts as a
reductant.

Copper is reduced from +1 state to zero oxidation state and sulphur is oxidised from -2 to
+4 state. It is a redox reaction. Cu(I) is an oxidant; sulphur of Cu 2S is reductant.
5. Justify that CaCO3 ---→ CaO + CO2 is not a redox reaction.

There is no change in oxidation no, hence it is not a redox reaction.

6. Justify that the following reactions are redox reactions:
(a) CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
(b) Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(c) 4BCl3(g) + 3LiAlH4(s) → 2B2H6(g) + 3LiCl(s) + 3AlCl3 (s)
(d) 2K(s) + F2(g) → 2K+F- (s)
(e) 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
7. Suggest a scheme of classification of the following redox reactions
(a) N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) ; combination redox reactions
(b) 2Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO(s) + 2NO2(g) +½O2 (g) ; decomposition redox reaction
(c) NaH(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2 (g) ; displacement redox reaction
+4 +3 +5
(d) 2NO2(g) + 2OH-(aq) → NO2- + NO-3(aq)+H2O(l) ; disproportionation redox reaction
8. Balance the following redox reactions
1. Cr2O72- (aq)+ SO32-(aq)→ Cr3+(aq) + SO42-(aq) (in acidic medium)
2. MnO4-(aq) + SO2 (g) → Mn2+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq) (in acidic solution)
3. Cr2O72- + SO2(g) → Cr3+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) (in acidic solution)
4. Fe2+ (aq) + Cr2O72- (aq) → Fe3+ (aq) + Cr3+(aq) (in acidic solution)
5. MnO4- (aq) + Br -(aq) → MnO2(s) + BrO3- (aq) (in basic medium)
6. MnO4- (aq) + I- (aq) → MnO2(s) + I2(s) (in basic medium)

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties (Tabular Format)

Feature Details
Modern Periodic The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic
Law functions of their atomic numbers.
Structure of the - Periods: Horizontal rows (7 periods).
Table - Groups: Vertical columns (18 groups).
Periods - Total: 7 periods.
- Period 1: 2 elements.
- Periods 2 & 3: 8 elements each.
- Periods 4 & 5: 18 elements each.
- Periods 6 & 7: 32 elements each (includes lanthanides and actinides).
Groups - Total: 18 groups.
- Groups 1 & 2: s-block (alkali and alkaline earth metals).
- Groups 3 to 12: d-block (transition metals).
- Groups 13 to 18: p block (nonmetals, metalloids, and some metals).
Blocks of - s-block: Groups 1 & 2.
Elements - p-block: Groups 13 to 18.
- d-block: Groups 3 to 12.
- f-block: Lanthanides and actinides. Groups 3
Periodic Trends - Atomic Size: Decreases across a period, increases down a group.
- Ionization Energy: Increases across a period, decreases down a
group.
- Electron Affinity: Generally increases across a period, decreases
down a group.
- Electronegativity: Increases across a period, decreases down a group.
What would be the IUPAC name and symbol for the elements
What would be the IUPAC name and symbol for the element with atomic number 120?
Electronic configuration of elements in period
Periods Orbitals to be filled No. of elements
1 1s 2
2 2s,2p 8(2+6)
3 3s,3p 8(2+6)

4. 4s,3d,4p 18(2+10+6)
5 5s,4d,5p 18(2+10+6)
6(longest) 6s, 4f, 5d,6p 32(2+ 14+10+6)
7 7s,5f,6d,7p incomplete

Here is a summary table based on the classification and properties of elements in the
periodic table:

Category Description
Similarity in Elements in the same group have similar properties because they have the
Properties same number of valence electrons and similar outer electronic
within configurations.
Groups
s-Block Groups 1 & 2 (Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals)
Elements
1. Configuration: ns¹-2
1. Highly reactive metals (alkali/alkaline earth).
2. Low ionization energies.
3. Good conductors of heat and electricity.
4. Tend to form ionic compounds.
 5. React with water (alkali metals) or oxygen to form basic oxides.
p-Block Groups 13 to 18
Elements
1. Configuration: ns²np¹-6

d-Block Transition Metals (Groups 3-12)

Elements
1. Configuration: (n-1)d¹–₁₀ns⁰–₂

3. Role: Bridge between s-block metals and p-block nonmetals

f-Block Inner-Transition Elements (Lanthanides and Actinides)
Elements
1. Configuration: (n-2)f¹–₁₄ (n-1)d⁰–₁ns²
2. Properties: All metals, variable oxidation states
3. Special Characteristics: Actinides are radioactive; Transuranium
elements come after Uranium
4. Lanthanides & Actinides: Placed separately to maintain the periodic
table structure and show horizontal similarity among themselves

Reasons for Separating Lanthanides and Actinides:

 To maintain the structure of the periodic table.

 Horizontal similarity within each series of Lanthanides (Ce to Lu) and Actinides (Th
to Lr).

To determine the position of the elements in periodic table

 Period- highest principal quantum number
 Block - the orbitals to which last electron enters
 Group - S-Block-valence electron
 P block – 10+ valence electron D block- ns electrons+ (n-1 ) d electron:

# Questions
1. Give the electronic configuration and in terms of period, group, and block,
where would you locate the elements with Z = 17, 19, 24, 26, 12?
2. On the basis of quantum numbers, justify that the sixth period of the
periodic table should have 32 element
3. Write the general outer electronic configuration for s, p, d, and f block
elements.
4. Give five properties of s, p, d, and f block elements.
5. Why do elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical
properties
6. Assign the position of the element having outer electronic configuration:
(i) ns² np⁴ for n = 3 (ii) (n-1)d² ns² (iii) (n-2)f⁷ (n-1)d¹ ns² for n = 6 in the
periodic table.

Here are the questions along with their answers in table format:

# Questions Answers
1. How is atomic radius expressed in Atomic radius can be expressed as Covalent
terms of different types of radius? Radius (for covalent bonds), Metallic Radius
(for metallic bonds), and Ionic Radius (for ions).
2. How does the atomic radius vary In a period, atomic radius decreases as you move
in a period and in a group? How from left to right because the effective nuclear
do you explain the variation? charge increases, pulling the electrons closer. In
a group, atomic radius increases as you go down
because the number of electron shells
increases, making the atom larger.
3. Why is the atomic radius of noble The atomic radius of noble gases is not
gases not considered in considered in comparison because they have a
comparison? complete octet and a stable electron
configuration, making their atomic radius
difficult to define in the same manner as other
elements.
4. Explain why cations are smaller Cations are smaller because the loss of electrons
and anions larger in radii than increases the effective nuclear charge on the
their parent atom? Or describe the remaining electrons, pulling them closer. Anions
theory associated with the radius are larger because the addition of electrons
of an atom as it (a) gains an increases electron-electron repulsion, causing
electron (b) loses an electron. the electrons to spread out.
5. What do you understand by Isoelectronic species are species that have the
isoelectronic species? Name a same number of electrons but different nuclear
 species that will be isoelectronic charges. (i) O²⁻ (ii) K⁺ (iii) Na⁺ (iv) Sr²⁺
with each of the following atoms
or ions: (i) F⁻ (ii) Ar (iii) Mg²⁺
(iv) Rb⁺
6. Consider the following species: (a) They all have the same number of electrons
N³⁻, O²⁻, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, and Al³⁺ (a) (10 electrons). (b) Al³⁺ < Mg²⁺ < Na⁺ < O²⁻ <
What is common in them? (b) N³⁻
Arrange them in the order of
increasing ionic radii.
7. A quantitative measure of the Ionization enthalpy is the energy required to
tendency of an element to lose an remove an electron from an isolated gaseous
electron is given by its ionization atom. It is expressed in kJ/mol.
enthalpy. What is ionization
enthalpy and how is it expressed?
8. Why is the second ionization The second and third ionization enthalpies are
enthalpy greater than the first? higher because once the first or second electron
Why is the third ionization is removed, the ion becomes positively
enthalpy greater than the second? charged, which holds the remaining electrons
more tightly, making it harder to remove them.
9. How does ionization enthalpy Ionization enthalpy increases across a period
vary across a period? Explain because the atomic size decreases and the
why. effective nuclear charge increases, making it
harder to remove electrons.
10 Why is the ionization enthalpy of Be has a stable 2s² configuration, making it more
. Be greater than that of Boron? difficult to remove an electron compared to
Boron, which has an unpaired electron in the 2p
orbital, making it easier to remove.
11 Why is the ionization enthalpy of Nitrogen has a half-filled stable 2p³
. Nitrogen greater than that of configuration, making it more stable and harder
Oxygen? to remove an electron, while Oxygen has a
paired 2p⁴ configuration, where electron-electron
repulsion makes it easier to remove an electron.
12 . How would you explain the fact Ans-Mg is smaller than Na,there for the first
the first ionization enthalpy of ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower than that
sodium is lower than that of of Magnesium.After losing one electron Na gets
Magnesium but its second stable noble gas configuration. hence second
ionization enthalpy is higher than ionization enthalpy is higher than that of
that of Magnesium? Magnesium

Here are the questions along with their answers in a table format:

# Questions Answers
1. Define Ionization enthalpy. Give its unit. Ionization enthalpy is the amount of
(a) energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of isolated
gaseous atoms to form cations. It is
expressed in kJ/mol.
1. Explain the term successive ionization Successive ionization energies refer to
(b) energies. the energies required to remove
electrons one by one from an atom or
ion, after the first electron has already
been removed. These energies increase
with each subsequent electron due to the
increasing positive charge on the ion.
2. How does the Ionization enthalpy vary in a Ionization enthalpy increases across a
period and in a group? How do you period due to the increase in effective
explain the variation? nuclear charge and the decrease in
atomic size. In a group, ionization
enthalpy decreases down the group
because the atomic size increases, and
the outer electrons are farther from the
nucleus, making them easier to remove.
3. Among the second period elements the (i) Be has a stable 2s² configuration,
actual ionization enthalpies are in the which is more tightly bound, making it
order: Li<B<Be<C<O<N<F<Ne. Explain harder to remove an electron compared
why: (i) Be has higher ionization enthalpy to B, which has an unpaired electron in
than B. (ii) O has lower ionization the 2p orbital.
enthalpy than N and F. (ii) O has a paired 2p⁴ configuration,
leading to increased electron-electron
repulsion, making it easier to remove an
electron compared to N, which has a
stable half-filled 2p³ configuration.
4. How would you explain the fact that the Mg is smaller than Na, so the first
first ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower ionization enthalpy of Na is lower. After
than that of Magnesium but its second losing one electron, Na achieves a stable
ionization enthalpy is higher than that of noble gas configuration, making its
Magnesium? second ionization enthalpy higher than
that of Mg, which still requires energy
to remove electrons from a less stable
configuration.
5. What are the various factors due to which due to
the ionization enthalpy of the main group the increase in atomic size, the
elements tends to decrease down a group? shielding effect increases with the
addition of electron shells, reducing the
effective nuclear charge felt by the
outermost electrons.
6. Arrange C, N, O, and F in the decreasing The order is: F > O > N > C. This is
(a) order of their second ionization enthalpy because after the first ionization, F⁻ has
and explain briefly. a stable 2p⁶ configuration, making it
harder to remove an electron. O²⁻ has a
stable 2p⁶ configuration as well, but less
so than F. N²⁻ has a half-filled 2p³
configuration, making it more stable
than O²⁻. C²⁻ has a less stable
configuration, making it easier to ionize.
7. Would you expect the first ionization same because isotopes have the same
enthalpy for two isotopes of the same electronic configuration.
 element to be same or different? Justify
your answer.

1. Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH) is the enthalpy change when an electron is added to a
neutral gaseous atom to form a negative ion.
a. Variation in a Group As we move down a group, ΔegH becomes less
negative (decreases). This is because atomic size increases and the effective
nuclear charge decreases
b. Variation in a Period As we move across a period, ΔegH becomes more
negative (increases). This is due to the decrease in atomic size and the increase in
effective nuclear charge.
2. Anomalies -
a. Oxygen (O) vs. Sulfur (S): O has less negative ΔegH than S due to higher electron-
electron repulsion in the smaller second shell.
b. Fluorine (F) vs. Chlorine (Cl): F has less negative ΔegH than Cl due to greater
electron-electron repulsion in the smaller second shell.
3. Group 17 (Halogens) Halogens (like F, Cl) have very negative ΔegH because they can
easily attain stable noble gas configurations by gaining an electron.
4. Noble Gases Noble gases have positive ΔegH because adding an electron would
lead to an unstable electronic configuration, making them resist gaining electrons.

Electron Gain Enthalpy:

1. Define the term Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH).
2. How does the electron gain enthalpy vary in a period and in a group? Explain the
variation.
3. Would you expect the second electron gain enthalpy of Oxygen to be positive,
more negative, or less negative than the first? Justify your answer.
4. Which of the following pairs of elements would have a more negative electron gain
enthalpy?
o (i) O or F
o (ii) F or Cl
o (iii) O or S
o Provide reasons to support your answers.
5. Which of the following will have the most negative electron gain enthalpy and
which will have the least negative?
 o P, S, Cl, F
o Explain your answer.
6. Arrange the following elements in increasing order of their negative electron gain
enthalpies:
o (i) C, N, O
o (ii) O, N, S
o (iii) Cl, S, Ar
o (iv) F, Cl, Br
7. The increasing order of reactivity among Group 1 elements is Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs,
whereas that among Group 17 elements is F > Cl > Br > I. Explain the reason for this
trend.
8. Predict the formulas of compounds that might be formed by the following pairs of
elements:
o (a) Silicon and Bromine
o (b) Aluminium and Sulphur
9. Why do Group 17 elements (halogens) have very high negative electron gain
enthalpies?
10. Why do noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies?
Electronegativity
Definition: Electronegativity is the qualitative measure of an atom's ability to attract
shared electrons in a chemical bond.
Measurement: It is not a measurable property in isolation.
Trend in the Periodic Table:
Across a Period: Electronegativity increases from left to right as atomic size
decreases and the effective nuclear charge increases.
Down a Group: Electronegativity decreases as atomic size increases and the ability to
attract electrons weakens due to increased distance from the nucleus.

Difference Between Electron Gain Enthalpy and Electronegativity:

Property Electron Gain Electronegativity

Enthalpy

Definition Enthalpy change Ability of an atom in a

when an electron is chemical compound to
 added to a neutral attract shared electrons
atom to form a
negative ion

Type of Property of an Property of a bonded

Property isolated atom atom (in a molecule)

Unit kJ/mol (kilojoules per No unit

mole)

Measurement Measured as an Described qualitatively or

enthalpy change by a numerical scale (e.g.,
Pauling scale)

Example Adding an electron to Fluorine (F) is more

a chlorine atom to electronegative than
form Cl⁻ hydrogen (H)

Variation of Properties Across a Period and Down a Group:

Property Down the Group Across the Period

Atomic Radii Increases Decreases

Metallic Character Increases Decreases

Non-Metallic Character Decreases Increases

Electronegativity Decreases Increases

Electron Gain Enthalpy Decreases Increases

Ionization Enthalpy Decreases Increases