Physics for engineers

Topic: ELECTROSTATICS
Outlines:
- Describe properties of positive and negative electric charges.
- Describe properties of conductors and insulators.
- Use mathematical representation of Coulomb’s Law to describe and predict the
electrostatic force between objects.
- Sketch electric field lines and vectors around charged particles or objects.
- Solve problems involving the forces on a charge due to an electric field.

4.1. GENERALITIES
► Electrostatics: Study of Electricity in which electric charges are static i.e. not moving or at
rest.
► Electric charge: A physical property of matter which causes it to experience a force when
near other electrically charged matter. Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C).
It is possible to develop the charge by rubbing two solids having friction.
• Carrying the charges is called electrification.
• Electrification due to friction is called frictional electricity.
► Positive charge: The type of charge carried by protons. Originally defined as the charge left
on a piece of glass when rubbed with silk. The glass becomes positively charged because the
silk pulls electrons off the glass.

► Negative charge: The type of charge carried by electrons. Originally defined as the charge
left on a piece of rubber when rubbed with wool. The amber becomes negatively charged
because the amber pulls the electrons off the fur.

► Elementary charge: The amount of charge on one proton or one electron. One elementary
charge equals 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪. Because ordinary matter is made of protons and electrons, the
amount of charge carried by any object must be an integer multiple of the elementary charge.
One Coulomb is the amount of electric charge transferred by a current of 1 ampere for a
duration of 1 second.
+1 C is the charge of 6.2415 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 protons.
-1 C is the charge of 6.2415 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 electrons.

4.2. SOME DEVICES THAT PRODUCE, USE OR STORE CHARGE

► Capacitor: a device that stores electric charge.
► Battery: a device that uses chemical reactions to produce an electric current.
► Generator: a device that converts mechanical energy (motion) into an electric current.
► Motor: a device that converts an electric current into mechanical energy.

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4.3. BEHAVIOR OF CHARGED PARTICLES

► Like charges repel. A pair of the same type of charge (two positive charges or two negative
charges) exert a force that pushes the charges away from each other (figure b).

► Opposite charges attract. A pair of opposite types of charge (a positive charge and a
negative charge) exert a force that pulls the charges toward each other (figure b).

(a) (b)
► Charge is conserved. Electric charges cannot be created or destroyed, but can be transferred
from one location or medium to another. (This is analogous to the laws of conservation of mass
and energy.)

4.4. ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

4.4.1. Definition
The space around a charge in which an electric force can be experienced is called electric field.

The electric field strength due to a point source O charge q at an observation point P at distance r
from the source charge is given by,
𝒒
⃗𝑬 = 𝑲 𝒓̂ 𝒊𝒏 𝑵/𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑽/𝒎
𝒓𝟐
Where 𝒓̂ is the unit vector from the point source “O” to the observation point “P” and K a constant
such that:
𝟏 𝟏
𝑲= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜺 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑲 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓
𝜺𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟐/𝑵𝒎𝟐 is a natural constant called the permittivity of vacuum or free space.
𝜺𝒓 is a dimensionless constant called relative permittivity or dielectric constant. 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟏 for vacuum
or for free space.

Therefore, 𝑲 = 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎𝟐 /𝑪𝟐 for vacuum or for free space.

⃗ is given by:
The magnitude of 𝑬

|𝒒|
𝑬=𝑲
𝒓𝟐
2

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Note: Electric field at any point is independent of the test charge (q0) placed at the observation point.

The test charge q0 will then experience a force expressed by:

4.4.2. Electric field lines

Field lines are lines with arrows that show the direction of an electric field. Field lines created by a
positive charged particle are oriented outward the particle while field lines created by a negative charged
particle are oriented toward the particle.

If a positive and a negative charge are near each other, the field lines go from the positive
charge toward the negative charge:

In the case of two charged plates (flat surfaces), the field lines would look like the following:

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4.5. COULOMB’S LAW

⃗ experienced by a test charge (q0) due to a source
Coulomb’s law states that the electric force 𝑭
charge (q) when separation between them is r, is proportional to the product of their electric
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

𝒒𝒐 𝒒
⃗𝑭 = 𝑲 𝒓̂ Note: The magnitude of ⃗𝑭
𝒓𝟐
is given by:
𝒒𝒐 𝒒
- If 𝑲 is positive, the two particles repel each other. |𝒒𝒐 |. |𝒒|
𝒓𝟐 𝑭=𝑲
𝒒𝒐 𝒒 𝒓𝟐
- If 𝑲 is negative, the two particles attract each other.
𝒓𝟐

Sample problems:

Q1: Find the force of electrostatic attraction between the proton and electron in a hydrogen
atom if the radius of the atom is 37.1 pm

Q2: Two charged particles, each with charge +q (which means q1 = q2 = q) are separated by
distance d. If the amount of charge on one of the particles is halved and the distance is doubled,
what will be the effect on the force between them?

Q3: What is the magnitude of the electric force between two objects, each with a charge of
+2μC, which are separated by a distance of 1.50 m? Is the force attractive or repulsive?

Q4: An object with a charge of +q1 is separated from a second object with an unknown charge
by a distance d. If the objects attract each other with a force F, what is the charge on the second
object?

Q5: An object with a charge of +1.5 x 10−2 C is separated from a second object with an
unknown charge by a distance of 0.500 m. If the objects attract each other with a force of
1.35 x 106 𝑁, what is the charge on the second object?

Q6: Three elementary charges, particle q1, particle q2, and particle q3, are arranged as shown
in the diagram below.

What is the net force (magnitude and direction) on particle q3?

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Physics for engineers

4.6. WORK DONE ON A CHARGE BY AN ELECTRIC FORCE

Recall that work is the dot product of force and displacement:

The electric field is conservative. That is the work done in moving a test charge does not depend
on the path followed. On the other hand, it depends on the initial and final positions of the test
charge.

4.7. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Recall from the work-energy theorem that work equals a change in energy. Because an electric
field can do work on a charged particle, an electric field must therefore apply energy to the
particle.
The electric potential is the electric potential energy of a charged particle in an electric field. It is
measured in Volts (V).
Electric potential is exactly analogous to gravitational potential energy. In a gravitational field,
a particle has potential energy because gravity can make it move. In an electric field, a particle
has potential energy because the electric field can make it move.

Where W is the work done and q is the electric charge of the particle.

PROBLEMS
Q1. Sketch the electric field around each of the following charged particles:

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Physics for engineers

Q2. In The following electric field vector diagram:

a. Label the point charges (the black dots) with the sign of their respective charges (positive
or negative).
b. Which of the two charges is stronger? Explain how you can tell.

Q3

4.8. ELECTRIC DIPOLE

4.8.1. Definition
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a considerably short
distance. One of the simplest is the capacitor.
The geometrical symbol for capacitor is as follows:

The ratio of the charge q and potential V of a conductor is called capacitance (C). That is,
C=q/V measured in Farad (F).

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Physics for engineers

The capacitor is charged by connecting it across a cell or a battery. One plate acquires charge
+q and the other plate acquires the charge –q. The potential difference between the plates may
be V.
And the energy stored in the capacitor is given by:

Suppose a parallel plate capacitor consists of two plates of area A, separated by distance
d, having dielectric slab of same thickness and area, and of constant k between the
plates. Then the capacitance of the capacitor is given by:

4.8.1. Capacitors in series

If a number of capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, C3, ......., Cn are connected in series, then the
capacitance of the combination equivalent capacitance is given by:

► In series combination, the charge on each capacitor is same, but the potential difference
on each capacitor depends on the respective capacitance. That is:

► If V1, V2, V3, ......., Vn be the potential differences across the capacitors and E be the emf of
the charging battery, then:

Since charge on each capacitor is same,

In the series combination, the potential difference across the least capacitance is
the greatest. Series combination is useful, when a single capacitor is not able to tolerate a high
potential drop. So, the same is distributed among a number of capacitors.
► If n capacitors each of same capacitance C are connected in series, then the equivalent
capacitance of the combination is:

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Physics for engineers

► Total energy stored in series combination of capacitor is:

4.8.1. Capacitors in parallel

If a number of capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, C3, ........., Cn are connected in parallel, then
their equivalent capacitance is given by,

► In parallel combination, the potential difference across each capacitor is same and equal to
emf of the charging battery. That is,

► But the charge on different capacitors may be different. If q1, q2, q3, ........, qn be the charges
on the different capacitors then,

Since potential drop across each capacitor is same, therefore,

Parallel combination is useful when we require large capacitance and a large charge
is accumulated on the combination. In the parallel combination large charge is
accumulated on the capacitor of greater capacitance.
► If n identical capacitors each of capacitance C, are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
capacitance is given by:

► Total energy stored on the combination is,

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PROBLEMS
Q1. Electric potential is:
a) scalar and dimensionless quantity b) vector and dimensionless quantity
c) scalar and dimensional quantity d) vector and dimensional quantity

Q2. Which of the following is the correct relation between the units of capacitance, potential
and charge?

Q3. The ratio of the electric force between two protons to that between two electrons under
similar conditions is of the order of:

Q4. 106 electrons are added to a pith ball. The charge on the pith ball will be:

Q5. 106 electrons are taken out of a pith ball. The charge on the pith ball will be:

Q6. Force between two charges, when placed in free space is 10 N, If they are in a medium of
relative permittivity 5, the force between them will be :

Q7. The magnitude of the two charges is doubled and the distance of their separation is also
doubled, The electrostatic force between them will:
a) be halved b) doubled c) become four times d) remain unchanged

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Q8. Two charges are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle. The side of the triangle is
8 cm. The magnitude of both the charges is 10−5 𝐶. What is the magnitude of electric field at
the third corner of triangle?

Q9. Two capacitors of capacitances 4 F & 6 F are connected across a 120V battery in series
with each other. What is the potential difference across the 4 F capacitor?

Q10. Which of the following is blocked by the capacitor?

a) A.C. b) D.C. c) Both A.C. and D.C. d) Neither A.C. nor D.C.

Q11. In which of the following the energy is stored in the capacitor?

a) Charge b) Potential c) Capacitance d) Electric field

Q12. Two parallel plates are separated by 2 cm. If the potential difference between them is
20V, then electric field between them is:

Q13. A capacitor is charged to a potential difference of 400 V and its plates acquire a charge
of 0.2 C. When discharged, the energy released will be :
a) 20 J b) 40 J c) 80 J d) none of the above

Q14. Two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 are connected in parallel across a battery. If Q1
and Q2 respectively be the charges on the capacitors, then the ratio Q1/Q2 equals:

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Q15. What is the equivalent capacitance of the combination shown in the fig. below?

a) C/2 b) C c) 2 C d) 4 C

Q16. Two capacitors of capacitances 4 F & 6 F are connected across a 120V battery in series
with each other. What is the potential difference across the 4 F capacitor?
a) 40 V b) 48 V c) 60 V d) 72 V

Q17. A capacitor of capacitance 1 F can withstand a potential difference of 6 kV and another

capacitor of 1 F can withstand a potential difference of 4 V. If they are connected in series,
the combination can withstand a potential difference of:
a) 3 V b) 4 V c) 6 V d) 8 V

Q18. How many capacitors each of 8 F & 250 V are required to form a composite capacitor
of 16 F and 1000 V?
a) 8 b) 16 c) 32 d) 64

Q19. The plates of a capacitor are separated by 5 mm and they are connected to a battery of
100V. What will be the force on an electron located between the plates?

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Topic: UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Outlines:
- To describe universal gravitation.
- To determine the gravitational field created by a body.
- To determine the gravitational force experienced by a body.

1.1. DEFINITION
Gravity is a force of attraction between two objects because of their mass.
An object with more mass causes a stronger gravitational force, which means “the more mass
you have, the more attractive you are.”
However, the force gets weaker as the object gets farther away.

1.2. FRAME OF REFERENCE

It is an arbitrary coordinate system that is used to measure the position and movement of
objects. The frame of reference may be stationary or it may be moving in any way.
In general there exists three types of frame:
- Heliocentric frame: Its origin is the center of sun and it is used to study the motion of
planets in the solar system.
- Geocentric frame: Its origin is the center of earth and it is used to study the motion of
satellites moving around the earth.
- Laboratory frame: Its origin is any point on the earth surface and it is used to study the
motion of objects moving on the earth surface.

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Physics for engineers

1.3. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

It is a region in which a body can experience a gravitational force.
Any object “O” because of its mass (m) is able to create a gravitational field at a point “M” in
its surroundings. That gravitational field is proportional to the mass of the object creating the
field and inversely proportional to the square of the distance where the field is created.
𝒎
𝒈(𝒓) = 𝑮
𝒓𝟐
Where:
r is the distance where the field is created in m.
g(r) is the gravitational field created at a distance r in N/kg or 𝒎. 𝒔−𝟐 .
m is the mass of the object creating the field in kg.
𝑮 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵. 𝒎𝟐 . 𝒌𝒈−𝟐 is the universal gravitational constant.
Note: Gravitational field lines are moving inward the object creating the field. That is why the
gravitational field is also called centripetal field.

1.4. NEWTON’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

It states that “the force of attraction between two bodies is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separating distance.”

Looking at the above diagram:

Note: From that law we can deduce that any object of mass m in the presence of a gravitational
⃗⃗ will experience a gravitational force 𝑭
field 𝒈 ⃗ proportional to that field. That force is called
Weight if the gravitational field is due to earth.

⃗𝑭 = 𝒎. 𝒈
⃗⃗
The two vectors have the same direction and the magnitude of the force is given by:

F = m.g
Exercise: Prove it using the universal law of gravitation.

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1.5. CENTRIPETAL MOTION

If an object “M” is performing a uniform circular motion around “O”, then its centripetal
acceleration is given by:

Where V is the speed of object “M” in m/s, and w its angular speed in rad/s.

The centripetal acceleration (ac) is the constant acceleration of an object toward the center of
rotation that keeps it rotating around the center at a fixed distance.

Appendix:

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Physics for engineers

TUTORIALS
EXERCISE 1
The acceleration due to gravity g is, as you know, about 9.8 𝑚. 𝑠 −2 on the 2 surface of the earth.
However, this is not a constant!
a) Why does g vary a little bit from place to place on the surface of the Earth even
if the height at which it is being measured remains constant?
b) What happens to g as you go higher and higher?
c) What happens to g as you approach the centre of the Earth?
d) Where do you expect will have its maximum value, and why?

EXERCISE 2
Find the force of gravitational attraction between the Earth and a person with a mass of 75 kg.
The mass of the Earth is 5.97×10^24 kg, and its average radius is 6380km.

EXERCISE 3
Find the acceleration due to gravity on the moon. Compare it with the acceleration due to
gravity on the earth. What can you conclude?

EXERCISE 4
If the distance between an object and the center of mass of a planet is tripled, what happens to
the force of gravity between the planet and the object?

EXERCISE 5
Find the force of gravity between the earth and the sun. Compare it with the force of gravity
between the earth and the moon.
EXERCISE 6
Find the acceleration due to gravity on the planet Mars.

EXERCISE 7
A mystery planet in another part of the galaxy has an acceleration due to
gravity of 5𝑚. 𝑠 −2 . If the radius of this planet is 2000km, what is its mass?

EXERCISE 8
A person has a mass of 80kg.
a. What is the weight of this person on the surface of the Earth?
b. What is the weight of the same person when orbiting the Earth at a height of 1500km above
its surface?
EXERCISE 9
Find the linear speed, the angular speed and the speed of rotation (in revolution per year, or per
month, or per day) of a satellite of mass 250kg performing a uniform circular motion at
36000km from the earth surface.

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