MODULE 6

CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND OPERATIONS

CONSTRUCTION
- Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure.
- Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the gross domestic product of
develop countries.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Building Construction is usually further divided into residential and
non-residential. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or
construction of building.
2. INFRASTRUCTURE. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering.
It includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater, and utility distribution.
3. INDUSTRIAL. It includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, and manufacturing
plants. It’s the other way to break the industry into sectors or markets.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS

- Construction Methods are the techniques construction professionals use to build structures and
complete projects.

DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION METHODS

CLEARING THE SITE / SITE CLEARING. Process or removing all features from a site that interfere with
construction and is the first step in any construction project. It affects everything from planning to
building permits to project safely – but it’s equally important to do it in a way that minimizes the
impact on the land. Its sole purpose is clear the land of any existing buildings, debris, or waste. It
involves the use of specialist heavy machinery, a skilled team with the expertise and knowledge of
operating the required equipment and the means to legally dispose of the waste. There some
important site factors such as:

a. Size of the site

b. The amount of natural growth
c. Man-made and natural obstacles
d. Location of the site
e. What is around the site
2. DEMOLISHING. It is the dismantling, razing, destroying, and wrecking of any building or structure
or any part thereof. Also involves many hazards due to unforeseen events that are dangerous. It
can be done in 2 processes, blasting and wrecking.
3. SALVAGING. Process of saving things from being demolished (destroyed), and can be done by
tearing down, taking apart, or removing the wanted material from the site.
4. CUTTING. It means bringing down timber by using axes, explosives, or saws. It can be done with
a torch to cut through pieces of metal.
5. BURNING. Done by setting a fire under controlled conditions.
6. EARTHMOVING. Process of removing, moving, or adding soil or unformed rock from one location
to another and processing it so that it meets construction requirements as part of engineering
works. Equipment used for this method are:
a. Bulldozer
b. Excavator
c. Scraper
d. Backhoe Loader
e. Common Dump Truck
f. Compactor
7. DISPOSING. Process of removing the site materials that are not wanted, and may be done by
burying, burning, or hauling away.

LOCATING THE STRUCTURES

1. SURVEYING. Means of making relatively large-scale, accurate measurements of the Earth’s

surfaces.
2. FUNCTIONS. The determination of existing relative horizontal and vertical position, such as that
used for the process of mapping.

TRANSPORTING EQUIPMENT. It maybe complicated by many conditions such as:

a. The distance to the site

b. The access routes to the site
c. The height and width of the equipment
d. The speed of kind of wheels on the equipment
e. The total weight of the equipment

SETTING UP EQUIPMENT. Before the equipment gets to the site, the contractor decides how he will
use the machinery. All needed ramps, mats (which give support on soft soil), assembly areas, and
parking aprons (used for servicing and storage) are made ready ahead of time. Once the equipment
arrives, work is done very quickly.

EXCAVATING. It is done to reach a good base for a foundation, to make cuts through hilly land for
travel routs, and to level uneven ground. Some of the methods of excavating are:

a. Bulk Pit Excavating

b. Bulk Wide-Area Excavating
c. Loose-Bulk Excavating
d. Limited-Area Vertical Excavating
e. Trenching
f. Dredging
g. Tunnel Excavating
But it requires a lot of work to loosen the materials to be able to excavate, with this, these are the
common techniques used for loosening the materials:

1. Blasting
2. Breaking
3. Scarifying
4. Ripping
5. Transferring and Disposing
6. Filling
7. Top Dressing

STABILIZING EARTH AND STRUCTURE. This part of the construction method and operation is done to
prepare the site for the next operation which involves setting foundations. This is also done for
protection of workers. It is divided into 2 types called:

1. TRIMMING. It is the process of preparing the construction site ready for the excavation of
foundation. It can be done by smoothing, compacting out the surface of the site and more. Several
methods are used for trimming:
a. Cleaning and washing
b. Grading
c. Sloping
d. Treating
2. STABILIZING. It is a technique to improve the engineering properties of a soil. Since the base soil
acts as the foundation, the soul should possess properties that create a strong foundation. There
are ways to stabilize namely:
a. Compacting
b. Sheathing
c. Bracing and Shoring
d. Piling
e. Coffer Damming

SETTING THE FOUNDATION. Foundation is the member of structure that provides support of stability
for the whole building by transferring their load to the soil. To construct a foundation, trenches are
dug into the soil until proper depth is reached. These trenches are filled with reinforcement cage for
the footing and will be connected to the reinforcement bar for the substructure above, then it will be
filled with concrete. There are different types of foundation:

1. Shallow Foundation. These are foundations that are less than a foot below the ground level which
are utilized in low to mid-rise buildings.
a. Spread Footing. It is constructed by increasing the area of the base of the foundation
through offsets. There are 3 types of these:
i. Wall Footings. These are the most common type of spreading footing foundation.
The base of the footing is increased by providing 5 cm offsets on either side and
the depth is usually 10 cm.
ii. Masonry Pillar Footing / Isolated Footing. Designed to support a single column.
iii. Concrete Column Footing. These are constructed in a regular shape but if the
columns are not in the same section, a trapezoidal shape is used.
2. Grillage Foundation. A type of foundation that consists of one or two levels of wooden or rolled
steel sections placed at a right angle with concrete filling in the gaps between them.
3. Steel Grillage Foundation. Constructed with steel grillage beams also called as Steel Joist. These
foundations are very prone to corrosion so it should be covered with at least 10 cm of concrete.
4. Timber Grillage Foundation. Constructed with timber planks and timber grillage beams instead of
the steel joists.
5. Raft Foundation. Foundations which a massive concrete slab supports the walls and column above
it.
6. Stepped Foundation. There are foundations that are created when a flat surface is not possible.
7. Inverted Arch Foundation. These are foundations with inverted arches between piers. The rise of
the inverted arch should be between 1/5 and 1/10 of the span.
8. Deep Foundations. Usually constructed way below ground level since it is commonly utilized to
support high-rise buildings. There are 2 types of this foundation:
a. Pile Foundation. Made out of spread footing or grillage base with piles at the bottom.
These are commonly used in elevated railway systems.
b. Well / Caisson Foundation. Foundations used in bridges since it is utilized mostly below
the water level. There are 3 types of Well or Caisson Foundation:
i. Open Caisson
ii. Box Caisson
iii. Pneumatic Caisson

OTHER TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION METHODS

1. Surveying
2. Clearing
3. Framing
4. Signages
5. Mobilization
6. Layout
7. Excavation
8. Footing
9. Columns
10. Beams
11. Slabs
12. Wall
13. Electrical and Mechanical
14. Plumbing
15. Finishing and Partitions
16. Tapping Off and Roof Deck
17. Painting
18. Power Supply
19. Testing
20. Demobilization
21. Handover
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Process of adding structure to real property or construction of

buildings.
2. INFRASTRUCTURE. Often called heavy/highway, heavy civil, or heavy engineering. It includes large
public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater, and utility distribution.
3. INDUSTRIAL. Includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, and manufacturing
plants. There are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets.

BUILDING SUPERSTRUCTURES

- A superstructure is defined as the building’s structural component that is constructed above the
substructure. There are 3 kinds of superstructure:
1. MASS SUPERSTRUCTURE. These are made by combining similar materials into a certain shape or
design. It is not necessarily solid as it can be layered and sometimes be built with a hollow area
that helps structure perform a special function.
2. BEARING WALL SUPERSTRUCTURE. Also called as load-bearing structures. These have walls that
are load-bearing that transmit the loads to the foundations. It is the oldest and most common
type of structure in which the loads of the roofs as well as lateral loads such as earthquake, wind
etc. are borne by walls.
3. FRAMED SUPERSTRUCTURE. A structure having the combination of beam, column, and slab to
resist the lateral and gravity.

STEEL FRAMES

- When vertical and horizontal structural elements are formed by a system of structural steel beams
and columns to be used as skeleton frames.

CONCRETE FRAMES

- It is made the same way as concrete used in foundations. The only difference is that stronger
concrete is needed.

WOOD FRAMES

- It is generally used for small buildings such as residential houses.

PLUMBING SYSTEMS

- These carry gasses and liquids which move rapidly at pressures varying from the weight of the gas
or liquid to extremely high pressures.
1. Piping
2. Trenching
3. Laying Pipe

ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

- The steps in installing electrical systems includes: mapping out wiring, switches, light fixtures, and
outlets.
CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES

DESIGN TEAM

- Construction usually involves the translation of design into reality.

- Design usually consists of drawings and specifications, usually prepared by a design team
including architect, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural
engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and
archaeological consults.
- Formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings and to integrate
those proceedings with the other parts.

FINANCIAL ADVISORS

- Construction can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids happen when
builders ask for too little money to complete the project.
- CASH FLOW problem exists when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current
costs for labor and materials.
- FRAUD is a problem in many fields but is notoriously prevalent in the construction field.
- FINANCIAL PLANNING is intended to ensure that a solid plan with adequate safeguard.

LEGAL ASPECTS

- These include governmental regulations on the use of property and obligations that are
created in the process of construction.
- The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements.

INTERACTION ENTERPRISE

- Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate.

- The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but
must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use.

INTERACTION INTERPRISE

- The financial structure must accommodate the need for building the design provided and
must pay amounts that are legally owed.

PROCUREMENT

- Describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building.

- The three most common types of procurement are traditional (design-bid-build), design-build
and management contracting.
- New forms include partnering such as-private partnering (PPPs) aka private finance initiatives
(PFIs) and alliances such as “pure” or “project” alliances and “impure” or “strategic” alliances.
CONSTRUCTION PHASES

- VISION/IDEA. A concept never intended to be built, maybe an aesthetic or structural design

exercise.
- PROPOSING. A building concept that is under review by the building owner and by the
government.
- APPROVAL. A building concept that will be constructed shortly. If the proposed building is not
approved the proposal may be amended and resubmitted, or it may be deferred or canceled.
- DESIGN. The specification of what is to be built in sufficient detail to be used as the basis of a
contract between the owner and a contractor.
- PROCUREMENT. The selection of the contractor or contractors to carry out the construction. This
may be by competitive tendering.
- UNDER-CONSTRUCTION. A fully designed building currently being built.
- DIVERSIONS. Before construction can start any services on the site which must be kept
operational to serve other adjacent sites must be diverted so they run outside the footprint of the
new building. This can include drainage, water, gas-piped services, and power and communication
cables.
- GROUND WORKS. Construction work below ground level including the construction of the
basement and foundations.
- TOPPED-OUT. A fully designed building where construction has reached the highest point of the
building.
- FITTING OUT. Installation of the decorative, nonstructural elements once the building's main
structure is complete. This includes painting, ceilings, light fitting, etc.
- COMMISSIONING/SETTING TO WORK. Once the building's mechanical and electrical plumbing
communications and building control systems are installed they then need to be tested and
adjusted so they deliver the required performance.
- SUBSTANTIAL COMPLETION/BENEFICIAL OCCUPANCY. A point when the work is sufficiently
complete so that the owner can occupy (items noted during inspection "punch list" or "snag list"
may still be corrected)
- COMPLETE/BUILT. A fully designed building that has been fully built, excluding future expansions
(punch list items all completed)
- BUILDING OPERATION. All those day-to-day activities need to ensure the building can be used. In
simple buildings, this means little more than cleaning but in more complicated buildings this is a
large-scale operation employing a large team of staff. If they do their job right then you hardly
notice them.
- MAINTENANCE. Works to ensure the building continues to operate in accordance with its design,
including replacing elements that are approaching the end of their useful life.
- REPAIR. Replacing building elements which have been damaged or which have failed to restore
the building to its as-built state.
- RENOVATION. Modification to the building. This can be minor modifications that are carried out
while the building is occupied or major works where only the structural elements are kept and
the building is out of use for years.
- DEMOLITION. Destruction of the building which may include the salvage of some elements for
reuse elsewhere.
MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

1. Precast Flat Panel System. Floor and wall units are produced off-site in factory and erected on-
site to form robust structures, ideal for all repetitive cellular projects. Panel scan includes services,
windows, doors, and finishes. Building envelope panels with factory-fitted insulation and
decorative cladding can also be used as load-bearing elements—this factory quality and accuracy,
together with the speed of erection on-site.
2. 3D Volumetric Construction. Known as Modular Construction. Involves the production of three-
dimensional units in controlled factory conditions before site transportation. It offers inherent
benefits of concrete, such as thermal mass, sound, and fire resistance, as well as offering factory
quality and accuracy, together with the speed of erection on-site.
3. Tunnel Form. Is a form of work system that allows the contract or the building of monolithic walls
and slabs in one operation on a daily cycle. It combines the speed, quality, and accuracy of
factor/offsite-produced ready-mix concrete and formwork with the flexibility and economy of cast
in-situ construction. This fast-track method of construction is suitable for repetitive as hotels,
apartments, blocks, and student accommodations. It offers economy, speed, quality, and
accuracy, as well as utilizing the inherent benefits of concrete, such as fire and sound resistance.
4. Hybrid Concrete. Combines all the benefits of pre-casting with the advantages. Combining the
two, as a hybrid frame, results in even greater construction speed, quality, and overall economy.
HCC can answer client demands for lower costs and higher quality by providing simple, buildable,
and competitive structures that offer consistent performance and quality.
5. Thin Joint Masonry. Allows the depth of the mortar to be reduced from 10 mm to just 3 mm or
less, resulting in faster laying and improved productivity, particularly on long runs of walling.
6. Insulating Concrete Formwork. This formwork is filled with factory-produced, quality-assured,
ready-mixed concrete to create a robust structure. The expanded polystyrene blocks remain to
provide high levels of thermal insulation and the concrete core provides robustness and good
levels of sound insulation.
7. Precast Foundations. Can be used to rapidly construct foundations. The elements are usually to
be spoke design and cast in a factory environment.

CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS

- The study of construction operation requires a tool that provides solutions without requiring the
input of copious amount of data.

PROSIDYC

- This is a system for simulating constructions jointly developed by the planning and methods units
of Dragados y construction in Madrid, Spain and the division of construction engineering &
management at Purdue University.

HIERARCHICAL LEVEL IN CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

1. Organizational
2. Project
3. Activity
4. Operation
5. Process
6. Work Tasks