pg4 20

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 17

b.

Site Visit
A site visit is a physical inspection of a construction site. It’s an opportunity for the project team
behind the building to see the work in progress and to identify any potential problems. They can
be conducted by the project manager, the engineer, the architect or any other member of the
project team. There are many benefits to conducting site visits. They can help to:
1) Ensure that the project is on schedule and within budget
2) Identify and address any potential problems.
3) Communicate with the client and the contractor
4) Gain a better understanding of the project.
5) Build relationships with the client and the contractor.

c. Site Clearance
Site clearing is the first step in any construction project that involves removing any elements on
the land that may get in the way of the construction process. This includes shrubs, vegetation,
rocks, and other debris. The goal of site clearing is to create a construction site conducive to
the project, allowing the construction team to start working on building the actual structure.
There are many things to consider when clearing a site. To start, it’s important to clear out
anything that can get in the way of the construction project to allow for a safe and secure
structure. However, it’s also essential for teams to consider the environmental impact of their
site clearing operations and take steps to reduce it.

Importance
Most construction sites and properties are not ready for a structure to be built on the land. This
is because most properties contain a lot of debris and vegetation that will prevent the team from
building a solid foundation and a safe structure.
Site clearing can be seen as the construction equivalent of priming a surface before painting for
a better overall output. Without site clearing, teams will be working on uneven land with debris
that can get in the way of establishing solid foundations and meeting the goal of the project. On
top of that, most localities require teams to effectively clear a site before commencing with the
project. So, not only is it essential in improving the overall safety and stability of the project, but
most construction projects also won’t be allowed to start unless the site has been properly
cleared.
Equipment Needed for Site Clearing

The type of equipment you will need to clear your site varies depending on the debris you need
to clear, the size of the property, and other factors. It’s important to select equipment that will
easily remove the debris, vegetation, and other things on the property you’re working on.
So, here are some of the most widely used pieces of equipment for site clearing and how they
are used:

1. Excavators – Used for large-scale land clearing projects and can remove debris while also
being used for digging, excavation, and earthmoving operations. Excavators have various
attachments that teams can use to target specific debris.
2. Bulldozers – They are very recognizable construction equipment typically used to push debris
away from the site while levelling the ground and prepping it for the construction project.
3. Tractors and Backhoes – These pieces can be used for digging, but they are also highly
effective at removing debris such as vegetation, large rocks, trees, and more.
4. Stump Grinders – This simple machine is used specifically for removing tree stumps after the
tree has been cleared.
5. Mulchers – This is used for clearing shrubs, underbrush, and small trees while shredding them
to turn them into mulch.
6. Skid Steer Loaders – This large equipment is used to carry, pick up, and transfer dirt, rocks,
and other large pieces of debris on a site.
7. While these aren’t the only pieces of equipment, you’ll need for site clearing, they are some of
the most widely used or important. So, your site clearing processes may require all these tools,
just one of them, or specific tools not mentioned in the list above
d. Setting Out

Setting out is a crucial step in the construction process that involves establishing precise locations
and levels for construction work. The process of setting out involves transferring design
information from plans and drawings to the construction site, using a variety of tools and
techniques to ensure accuracy and precision.
The first step in setting out is to establish a grid or framework for the construction site. This grid
is typically based on the dimensions and location of the building or structure being constructed
and may involve the use of surveying instruments such as total stations or GPS receivers. The
grid provides a reference point for all subsequent work and is used to ensure that all components
of the building are constructed in the correct location.

Once the grid has been established, the next step in setting out is to mark out the positions of the
foundation and walls of the building. This may involve the use of string lines, pegs, and spray
paint to mark the positions of the walls and foundations on the ground. These marks are then
used to guide the excavation of the foundation and the laying of the concrete or other foundation
materials.
As the construction process progresses, additional elements such as columns, beams, and walls
are set out using the grid as a reference point. This involves the use of tools such as plumb bobs,
spirit levels, and laser levels to ensure that the elements are constructed in the correct position
and at the correct angle.
Setting out is not only important for ensuring that the construction work is carried out accurately,
but it also helps to prevent delays and cost overruns. Errors in setting out can lead to mistakes in
the construction process, resulting in rework and additional costs. Proper setting out can also help
to improve the overall quality and durability of the construction work.
Setting out is a crucial step in the construction process that involves establishing precise locations
and levels for construction work. The process involves the use of a variety of tools and techniques
to ensure accuracy and precision and is essential for ensuring that the construction work is carried
out correctly and efficiently. Proper setting out can help to prevent errors and delays and can lead
to a more successful and cost-effective construction project.

1.2 Explain the Construction Elements of The Sub-Structure, Superstructure And Finishing.

Sub - Structure Element:

a. Foundation and Piling

Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact with the
soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely. Generally, the foundation can be
classified into two, namely shallow foundation and deep foundation. A shallow foundation
transfers the load to a stratum present in a shallow depth. The deep foundation transfers the load
to a deeper depth below the ground surface. A tall building like a skyscraper or a building
constructed on very weak soil requires deep foundation. If the constructed building has the plan
to extend vertically in future, then a deep foundation must be suggested.

Purpose of Foundation

Foundations are provided for all load carrying structure for following purposes:
1. Foundations are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is the
foundation, the more stable is the structure.
2. The proper design and construction of foundations provides a proper surface for the
development of the substructure to a proper level and over a firm bed.
3. A specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the supporting
material.
4. A proper foundation distributes load on to the surface of the bed uniformly. This uniform
transfer helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building. Differential settlement is an
undesirable building effect.
5. The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the structure over
a large base area and then to the soil underneath. This load transferred to the soil should be
within the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
Types of Foundation
Shallow foundations are of various types depending upon their load-bearing capacity, size of
the foundation, soil conditions, and construction procedure. Some of the common types of
shallow foundations are as follows:

1. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing

Isolated footing is a footing that is


provided beneath a single column. It is
used to transfer a superstructure load
through a reinforced concrete column to
the soil underneath without exceeding
the bearing capacity of the soil and
excessive settlement

2. Wall Footing or Strip footing or Continuous Footing


Strip foundations are a type of foundation
used to provide support for linear
structures like walls or columns. A strip
footing is used to distribute the weight of
a load-bearing wall over a floor area and
can be made of plain or reinforced
concrete.
3. Combined Footing
Combined footings are constructed for
two or more columns when they are
close to each other, and their foundations
overlap. The function of a footing or a
foundation is to transmit the load form the
structure to the underlying soil. The
choice of suitable type of footing
depends on the depth at which the
bearing strata lies, the soil condition and
the type of superstructure.
4. Cantilever or Strap Footing

A strap footing is a component of a


building's foundation. It is a type
of combined footing, consisting of two or
more column footings connected by a
concrete beam. This type of beam is called
a strap beam. It is used to help distribute
the weight of either heavily or eccentrically
loaded column footings to adjacent

5. Raft or Mat Foundation footings.

A raft foundation, also called a mat


foundation, is essentially a continuous
slab resting on the soil that extends over
the entire footprint of the building,
thereby supporting the building and
transferring its weight to the ground.

Piling
Piling is the process of drilling foundations through the ground to provide more structural strength
to the weak soil underneath. Piling prepares the ground to carry heavy loads, such as a new home,
office complex, road or another piece of infrastructure.
Piles usually are long poles that are made of timber, steel or concrete. Its shape, circumference
and weight may vary depending on the conditions of the soil and the demands of the project. For
example, piles may need to carry uplift loads to support taller structures, such as skyscrapers. In
this case, engineers need to consider overturning forces from winds or waves. Essentially, pile
foundations work by distributing the weight of heavy construction across a wider surface area.
There are several factors to consider when using a piling foundation during construction. Their
primary purpose is to ensure the safety and strength of the ground before workers build anything
above. Here are a few situations when using a pile foundation system can be essential:
1. When the groundwater table is high
2. When a heavy load of a superstructure needs additional support
3. Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible
4. When there is the possibility of scouring because of its location near the riverbed or
seashore
5. When there is a canal or deep drainage system near the structure
6. When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth because of poor soil condition.
7. When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by any other
measure.

b. Stump

The stump is the simplest and most familiar footing used for the vertical support and the transfer
of building loads to the foundation. Stumps are used to support timber-framed houses for which
they are currently the most cost effective. Three types of materials are commonly used for
stumps:
1) Timber
2) Concrete
3) Steel

Stumps must have a concrete or timber footing placed underneath the base of the stump. This is
to spread the load transferred to the stump from the building. This support beneath the stump is
called a 'pad' or 'soleplate'. Usually, concrete stumps are provided with concrete pads poured in
situ on the site. Timber stumps are provided with timber soleplates.

c. Ground Beam

The ground beam is the beam which is provided usually at the foundational level to support
building walls, joists, etc. Typically, the ground beams are directly rested on the ground,
sometimes they can be supported by end piers. Following are the facts regarding the ground
beam:
a. Typically ground beams are made of reinforced concrete.
b. Ground beams are typically constructed at foundation level.
c. Ground beads support wall, joists, etc.
d. It provided where the soil bearing capacity beneath the wall is poor.
Following are the advantages of ground beams :
a. Ground beams can be constructed quickly.
b. Resists the settlement of the supporting walls.
c. Bearing capacity of soil may increase indirectly due to the generated pressure.

d. Ground Floor (Ground Slab)

A solid ground floor is made of a layer of concrete, which in a residential construction is the
surface layer raised to the ground floor level and supported by hardcore infill. The advantage of
a solid ground floor is the elimination of dry root and other problems normally associated with
hollow joisted floors. Solid ground floors are usually found or situated in a kitchen but will be
necessary for other rooms where wood blocks and other similar finishes are required. The type
of ground on which the floor is constructed also determines how the floor build-up should be
specified to perform. The construction must prevent water from the ground getting inside the
building and may also need to resist the passage of radon gas. The ground floor also must
provide a sound, level base for the intended use of building.
Superstructure Element:

a. Column

Columns is vertical structure element that carries the load from the beam and slab of a building
and transfers the same to the substructure to the foundation. Columns are used in construction
for trusses, building frames and bridge structure support. In addition, columns help support
loads placed on bridge platforms, floors or roofs. There are two main types of loads which are
dead load and live loads. Live loads are temporary loads that can be applied on and off the
structure of building and have a change in position. While dead loads are fixed loads from
permanent or static load.
There is several of purpose of column which include the following:
a. Columns are vertical structure that transfer compressive stresses from the superstructure
to the substructure.
b. Columns support the floor and the columns on the levels above.
c. Columns of the ground floor must be strong enough to carry the combined weight of each
floor above it.
d. Columns should be positioned consistently throughout all levels to provide the best support.
This would increase the stability of the lowest group of columns in the structure.
e. Structural engineers must assess the weight sustained by the column before choosing a
suitable design. The vertical forces will influence the column design exerted on the column.
The effects of lateral forces caused by earthquakes and wind must also be considered
while determining the size and dimension of the column.

Types of Columns in Building

There are different types of columns based on assorted criteria, which include the following:

1) Based on Types of Reinforcement

i) Tied Column ii) Spiral Column iii) Composite Column


2) Based on Slenderness Ratio of Column

i) Short Column ii) Long Column

3) Based on Shape

i) Square Column ii) L- shape Column

iii) Circular Column iv) T- shape Column


4) Based on Construction Material

i) Reinforced Concrete ii) Steel

iii) Timber iv) Brick

v) Block vi) Stone


b. Beam

Beams are structural components that enable load transfer from the slab to the columns. This
means that transfer beams are used to transmit weight from one load-bearing wall to another.
These are typically horizontal structural components. The beam's duty is to support the wall while
avoiding overloading the concrete slab. In construction, beams are used to reinforce columns,
which results in an optimal distribution of bending stress in the beams and less bending in the
columns.
The purpose of beam structure include:
i. Offsetting shear forces and beam momentum
ii. Resisting loads
iii. Distributing loads
iv. Uniting the structure together
In a beam structure, a variety of reinforcements are used based on the type of building and the
beam's purpose. The most widely utilized reinforcements are:
Main bars: This type of reinforcement is used to carry load.
Support bars: A support bar is a reinforcement that is set in the top part of the beam and works
to hold the beam’s stirrups in place.
Stirrups: This type of reinforcement is used to offset the shear force stresses of the structure.
Types of Beams in Construction

1. Cantilever

A cantilever beam is a special kind of beam that projects horizontally into space, free at one
end and anchored at the other. This design allows it to carry loads over the unsupported span
without the need for extra free end support. These beams are frequently found in constructions
such as bridges and balconies.

2. Simply Supported Beams

The simplest and most used type of beam is the simply supported beam. They are used in
many different places, such as crane girders, bridges, and floor beams in structures.

3. Fixed Beams

A fixed beam is a beam that is firmly fixed and restrained at both ends. This kind of beam
prevents rotation at its supports and is highly effective at resisting bending moments. Large
buildings and multi-span bridges are examples of continuous structures that frequently use
fixed beams.
4. Overhanging Beams

An overhanging beam is defined as one or both ends protruding beyond its supports. This
additional extension results in an overhang, which can vary in length based on the design
specifications. Overhanging beams are used in construction applications that require an
extended platform, such as canopies or balconies.

5. Continuous Beam

Continuous beams are made up of many beams that are joined to produce an unbroken span
across several supports. The fundamental advantage of continuous beams is their ability to
distribute loads more evenly, reducing in lower bending moments and improved structural
stability. They are widely used in bridges and constructions with big apertures.

c. Wall (Brickwork/IBS Wall)

Wall is a vertical construction that divides spaces physically. It is typically constructed of stone,
brick, or concrete. Walls can be found in a variety of places, including parks and gardens as
well as indoor and outdoor spaces including commercial, industrial, and residential buildings.
Apart from acting as a physical barrier, walls can also provide privacy, security, and weather
and noise insulation. They can be ornamental or practical, and they can be used for delineating
borders, supporting roof structures, or giving space for signs or artwork.
d. Roofing

A roof is the top covering of a building, including all materials and constructions necessary to
support it on the walls of the building or on uprights, while shielding the structure from wind,
rain, sunlight, and temperature extremes. The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the
purpose of the building that it covers, the available roofing materials and the local traditions of
construction and wider concepts of architectural design and practice and governed by local or
national legislation.

Types of Roofs

Components of Roof
Relate element of construction workshop activities in construction element:
a. Concreting – Slump Test & Cube Test
b. Carpentry - Formwork & Reinforced Steel
c. Plumbing - Cutting, Threading & Bending
d. Brickwork – Stretcher Bond / Flemish Bond / English Bond
e. IBS – Installation Steel Framing System/ Lightweight

1.3 Schedule the Safety Protocol and Practices to Ensure a Safe Working Environment.

General Lab Safety Rules


The following are rules that relate to almost every laboratory/workshop and should be included in
most safety policies. They cover what you should know in the event of an emergency, proper signage,
lab/workshop safety equipment, safely using laboratory/workshop equipment, and basic common-
sense rules.
1. Be sure to read all fire alarm and lab safety symbols and signs and follow the instructions in
the event of an accident or emergency.
2. Ensure you are fully aware of your facility's/building's evacuation procedures.
3. Make sure you know where your lab's/workshop safety equipment—including first aid kit(s)
and fire extinguishers.
4. Know emergency phone numbers to use to call for help in case of an emergency.
5. Make sure you are aware of where your lab's exits and fire alarms are located.
6. Always work in properly ventilated areas.
7. Never use lab/workshop equipment that you are not approved or trained by your supervisor to
operate.
8. If an instrument or piece of equipment fails during use, or isn't operating properly, report the
issue to a lectures/technician right away. Never try to repair an equipment problem on your
own.
9. If you are the last person to leave the lab/workshop, make sure to lock all the doors and turn
off all ignition sources.
10. Make sure you always follow the proper lab/workshop safety procedures for all task in the
lab/workshop
11. Report all injuries, accidents, and broken equipment or glass right away, even if the incident
seems small or unimportant.
12. If you have been injured, yell out immediately and as loud as you can to ensure you get help.
13. If you notice any unsafe lab/workshop conditions, let your supervisor know as soon as
possible.
I. REFERENCES

1. Jonathan Klane, M.A.Ed., CIH, CSP, CHMM, CIT (23 January 2024). Lab Safety Rules and
Guidelines.
2. S.K. Sharma (2019), Building Construction, New Delhi: S Chand And Company Limited

PREPARED BY: CHECKED BY: APPROVED BY:


(Course Lecturer) (Course Coordinator/ (Head of Programme/
Head of Programme) Head of Department)

………………………………… ………………………………… …………………………………


( ) ( ) ( )
Date: Date: Date:
Nota : Item di dalam templat ini boleh diubahsuai mengikut struktur kurikulum yang berkuatkuasa dan boleh
disediakan secara digital ataupun bercetak.

You might also like