Giáo Trình Đọc PT KN Phản Biện

CAN THO UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
CRITICAL READING
(Đọc phát triển kỹ năng phản biện)
For Internal Use Only

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART ONE: INTRODUCTION OF CRITICAL READING …………………. 1
1. What is Critical Reading? ……………………………………………… 1
2. Being a Critical Reader …………………………………………………. 18
3. Critical Reading Guidelines …………………………………………... 33
PART TWO: READING COMPREHENSION …………………………………. 37
Skill 1: Answer Main Idea Questions Correctly ……………………. 39
Skill 2: Regconize the Organization of Ideas ………………………… 43

Skill 3: Answer Stated Detail Questions Correctly ………………… 45
Skill 4: Find Unstated Details ………………………………………………. 48
Skill 5: Find Pronoun Referents ………………………………………….. 50

Skill 6: Answer Implied Detail Questions Correctly ……………… 55
Skill 7: Answer Transition Questions Correctly ……………………. 58
Skill 8: Find Definitions from Structural Clues ……………………… 62
Skill 9: Determine Meanings from Word Parts …………………….. 65

Skill 10: Use Contexts to Determine Meanings of Difficult Words ……. 69
Skill 11: Use Contexts to Determine Meanings of Simple Words …….. 71
Skill 12: Determine Where Specific Information is Found ……………….. 76
Skill 13: Determine the Tone, Purpose, or Course …………………………… 78
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………... 86
1
PART ONE
INTRODUCTION OF CRITICAL READING
1. What is Critical Reading?

1.1 Thinking about your opinions
In the first activity you are going to read two short extracts and
examine your opinions on the subject of the texts.
ACTIVITY 1
Task 1: Read Extracts 1 and 2 and consider to what extent you agree
or disagree with the view of the authors.
Extract 1
I have been teaching full time for over thirty years. During that span of
time, one sees many, many students, and it amazes me how different they have
been over time, and the inequality continues to grow. Compared with the
students in the 1970s, today’s students are uneducated and unfit for a college
education.
Extract 2
Students today do not write merely to obtain good grades. They write to
shake the world. Moreover, they are writing more than any previous
generation, ever, in history. Popular beliefs that Google is making us stupid
and Facebook is frying our brains are totally inaccurate. New technologies are
leading to the development of new ways of being literate.
2
Task 2: Write down your ideas on the following questions.
1. What are your thoughts or feelings about Extracts 1 and 2?
2. Do you believe, for example, that ‘Facebook is frying our brains’?
3. Do you think that technology has helped you to read and write in new
ways from earlier generations?
4. What would you like to say to either writer?
1.2 Two meanings of ‘critical’

In the next activity you will read two responses to Extract 1 from an
online forum and will think about what being ‘critical’ means.
ACTIVITY 2
Task 1.1
Before you read, answer the following questions.
What do you think the expression ‘to make sweeping generalizations’

means?
Task 1.2
Read the statements below. Which ones do you think are ‘sweeping
generalizations’?
1. All women like fashion.
2. Drinking too much wine can be bad for your health.
3. Studying abroad can be quite challenging.
4. Children like sweets.
3
Task 2.1
Read the forum entries in Text 1 and Text 2, which are responses to
Extract 1. Then answer the questions.
Text 1
Mark: Sweeping generalizations about a whole generation are

frighteningly ignorant, especially from an educator.
Text 2
Anna: I can see some truth in this. I interview job applicants now and
then. My experience is that core skills (reading, writing, math) are in decline. I
had to explain the difference between mean and median to a college graduate
the other day. I wouldn’t generalize my experience to a whole generation, but
one certainly does see more and more articles like this one.
Question 1
How would you describe the attitude of the writer of Text 1? Choose
one of the options below and explain your choice.
A. angry B. reasonable C. very sympathetic to the author
Question 2
How would you describe the attitude of the writer of Text 2? Choose
one of the options below and explain your choice.
A. angry B. reasonable C. very sympathetic to the author
4
1.3 Thinking about what a text is saying and doing
When you read critically it is important to ask yourself first what the text
is saying and then what it is doing: for example, how it develops an argument.
This is called the function of a text. A part of a text can also have a function.
Understanding what a text and its parts are doing – their functions – can help
you to recognize what the writer’s purpose is. You are now going to read the
text from which Extract 1 was taken and think about what it is saying and
doing.
ACTIVITY 3
Task 1
Read Text 3, ‘The accounting cycle: students then and now’ (below),
reasonably closely to get an idea of what it is about. As the writer is talking
about accountancy students, there is some specialized vocabulary. Try to
decide whether unknown words are important and, if possible, use other
words in the text to try to understand the ones you are not sure about. Only
use a dictionary if that doesn’t work. You might want to record useful words.
Text 3
The Accounting Cycle: Students Then and Now
January 2009 – Compared with the students in the 1970s, today’s

accounting students are uneducated and unfit for a college education.
[1] I have been teaching full time for over thirty years. During that span of
time, one sees many, many students, and it amazes me how different they have
been over time, and the inequality continues to grow. Compared with the
students in the 1970s, today’s students are uneducated and unfit for a college
education.
5
[2] Before proceeding, let me state two premises. First, I do not think there
is any significant difference between the two groups in terms of native, raw
intelligence. Instead, the distinction between yesterday’s and today’s students
when they first set foot on college campuses rests in their educational
backgrounds, analytical thinking, reading abilities, willingness to work, and
their attitudes concerning the educational process. In short, they differ in terms
of their readiness for college. Second, I am focusing on the average student
who majors in accounting. Both groups arise from a distribution of students.
The less able of yesteryear’s population had some weak students, and the more
able of the present-day population has some very strong students; however,
when one focuses on the means of these two groups, he or she finds a huge
gap.
[3] Thirty years ago I required my Intermediate Accounting students to

derive the future and present value formulas, including the present value of a
perpetuity, which requires a knowledge of limits. I gave up on that over a
decade ago when I observed that the average student had no idea what I was
talking about. Worse, they didn’t care.
[4] Today’s students cannot read at what used to be a tenth-grade level. I

learned this dramatically when I wrote a couple of textbooks in the 1990s.
Editors at both publishing houses insisted that I rewrite my materials so
today’s student could read it. I was forbidden to employ large or ‘fancy’ words
and had to simplify the grammar. Today’s students cannot read critically. If I
really want them to perceive anything, I have to tell them. Of course, that
doesn’t work in the long run because I won’t be there in the future to help them
read essays.
[5] Worst of all is attitude. Yesterday’s student was willing to work; today’s
student is not. Past students thought of education as a privilege; current
students view it as an entitlement. Earlier students took responsibility for their
mistakes; contemporary students call mom and dad, who in turn call their
6
attorneys. Previously, it was honorable to obtain a B and at least acceptable to
receive a C, especially with the harder classes. Nowadays, students want at
least a B for signing up for class and an A with any effort expended on the
course, regardless of knowledge displayed in the classroom.
The following paragraph summaries are in the wrong order. Match

each summary with the correct paragraph.
a. Students today can’t read well or read critically and have to be told what
they are meant to understand.
b. Students today don’t understand accounting as well as they did 10 years ago
and don’t care.
c. The average student today is less able for several reasons which have
nothing to do with intelligence.
d. Students today think they are entitled to education and to get good marks
without making an effort.
e. Students today are uneducated and unsuitable for higher education.
Task 2
Identify the main function of each of the paragraphs of Text 3. To do

this, you will need to follow the author’s argument as you read the text.
Remember that the function of a particular paragraph may depend on the
function of the paragraphs before or after it. Three paragraphs in Text 3 have
the same function.
Hint: A claim is a statement which can be true or false and which shows
the opinion of the author. To ‘qualify’ a claim means to be more specific about
what you mean and what you don’t mean.
Paragraph 1
7
I have been teaching full time for over thirty years. During that span of
time, one sees many, many students, and it amazes me how different they
have been over time, and the inequality continues to grow. Compared with
the students in the 1970s, today’s students are uneducated and unfit for a
college education.
A. state a claim B. gives supporting evidence C. qualifies the claim
Paragraph 2
Before proceeding, let me state two premises. First, I do not think there
is any significant difference between the two groups in terms of native, raw
intelligence. Instead, the distinction between yesterday’s and today’s students
when they first set foot on college campuses rests in their educational
backgrounds, analytical thinking, reading abilities, willingness to work, and
their attitudes concerning the educational process. In short, they differ in terms
of their readiness for college. Second, I am focusing on the average student
who majors in accounting. Both groups arise from a distribution of students.
The less able of yesteryear’s population had some weak students, and the more
able of the present-day population has some very strong students; however,
when one focuses on the means of these two groups, he or she finds a huge
gap.
Paragraph 3
Thirty years ago I required my Intermediate Accounting students to

derive the future and present value formulas, including the present value of a
perpetuity, which requires a knowledge of limits. I gave up on that over a
decade ago when I observed that the average student had no idea what I was
Paragraph 4
8
Today’s students cannot read at what used to be a tenth-grade level. I
Editors at both publishing houses insisted that I rewrite my materials so
today’s students could read it. I was forbidden to employ large or ‘fancy’
words and had to simplify the grammar. Today’s students cannot read
critically. If I really want them to perceive anything, I have to tell them. Of
course, that doesn’t work in the long run because I won’t be there in the
future to help them read essays.
Paragraph 5
Worst of all is attitude. Yesterday’s student was willing to work; today’s

student is not. Past students thought of education as a privilege; current
students view it as an entitlement. Earlier students took responsibility for their
mistakes; contemporary students call mom and dad, who in turn call their
attorneys. Previously, it was honorable to obtain a B and at least acceptable to
receive a C, especially with the harder classes. Nowadays, students want at
least a B for signing up for class and an A with any effort expended on the
course, regardless of knowledge displayed in the classroom.
1.4 Facts and opinions
1.4.1 Fact or opinion?
Fact or opinion?
(a) ______ ‘Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade’
(b) ______ ‘Overweight people are lazy’.
9
Some of the texts you read at university will be factual, others will be
more opinion-based and some will be a mixture of facts and opinions. An
important aspect of critical reading is to be able to distinguish between facts
and opinions because opinions are not reliable unless supported by references
to other writers, research or evidence.
A fact is something that everyone knows is true – there is no argument.

On the other hand, an opinion is a viewpoint that other people might not
share; they might argue about it.
The next activity helps you to discriminate between facts and opinions in
Text 3.
ACTIVITY 4 – Part 1
Task 1
Read the following statements. Which are facts and which are opinions?
a. _____ Bats are nocturnal animals.

b. _____ Slim people are easy to get sick.
c. _____ The Earth is a sphere.
d. _____ It snows a lot in Canada in winter.
e. _____ A vegan diet will damage your health.
1.4.2 Fact or opinion?
Task 2
Read just the sections of Text 3 that are in bold type (below). Decide
whether they express facts or opinions and choose Fact or Opinion for each
section. What helped you to decide? Give the reason for your choice.
10
The Accounting Cycle: Students Then and Now
January 2009 – Compared with the students in the 1970s, today’s

accounting students are uneducated and unfit for a college education.
[1] I have been teaching full time for over thirty years. During that span
of time, one sees many, many students, and it amazes me how different they
have been over time, and the inequality continues to grow. [2] Compared
with the students in the 1970s, today’s students are uneducated and unfit
for a college education.
Before proceeding, let me state two premises. [3] First, I do not think
there is any significant difference between the two groups in terms of
native, raw intelligence. Instead, the distinction between yesterday’s and
today’s students when they first set foot on college campuses rests in their
educational backgrounds, analytical thinking, reading abilities, willingness to
work, and their attitudes concerning the educational process. In short, they
differ in terms of their readiness for college. Second, I am focusing on the
average student who majors in accounting. Both groups arise from a
distribution of students. The less able of yesteryear’s population had some
weak students, and the more able of the present-day population has some very
strong students; however, when one focuses on the means of these two groups,
he or she finds a huge gap.
[4] Thirty years ago I required my Intermediate Accounting students to

derive the future and present value formulas, including the present value
of a perpetuity, which requires a knowledge of limits. I gave up on that over
a decade ago when I observed that the average student had no idea what I was
Today’s students cannot read at what used to be a tenth-grade level. I

[5] Editors at both publishing houses insisted that I rewrite my materials
so today’s student could read it. I was forbidden to employ large or ‘fancy’
11
words and had to simplify the grammar. Today’s students cannot read
critically. If I really want them to perceive anything, I have to tell them. Of
course, that doesn’t work in the long run because I won’t be there in the future
to help them read essays.
Worst of all is attitude. [6] Yesterday’s student was willing to work;

today’s student is not. Past students thought of education as a privilege;
current students view it as an entitlement. Earlier students took
responsibility for their mistakes; contemporary students call mom and dad,
who in turn call their attorneys. Previously, it was honorable to obtain a B and
at least acceptable to receive a C, especially with the harder classes.
[7] Nowadays, students want at least a B for signing up for class and an A
with any effort expended on the course, regardless of knowledge displayed
in the classroom.
Your answer:
1. ………………………………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………………………………
3. ………………………………………………………………………………
4. ………………………………………………………………………………
5. ………………………………………………………………………………
6. ………………………………………………………………………………
7. ………………………………………………………………………………
12
1.5 Hedging
The use of hedging helps writers to avoid expressing opinions as facts and
to speculate or express caution in the statements they make. It also signals to
the reader that the writer is expressing an opinion. When writers ‘hedge’, they
use the following kinds of words and any others which create distance between
the writer and the opinion and show that the writer knows there may be people
who have other opinions:
 may, could, can, seem, appear

 probably, possibly, clearly, undoubtedly
 likely, probable, possible
 likelihood, possibility, probability
 quite, sometimes.
For example: ‘It is likely/probable/possible that we will all become
literate in new ways with advances in technology.’
The next activity helps you to think about how the use of hedging might
change the meaning of sentences in Text 3.
ACTIVITY 5
Question 1
Rewrite the following sentences, using hedging.
1. Today’s students cannot read critically.
……………………………………………………………………………..
2. Earlier students took responsibility for their mistakes.
……………………………………………………………………………
3. Past students thought of education as a privilege; current students view it

as an entitlement.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
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1.6 Supporting opinions through evidence and examples
In order to have academic credibility, opinions need to be supported by
reliable evidence in academic texts. ‘Reliable’ means the kind of evidence
that most readers would accept as valid. The aim of the next activity is to
identify how opinions are supported by evidence in the text.
ACTIVITY 6
Task 1
In Text 3, the author provides evidence to support examples of his

central claim that today’s students are uneducated and unfit for a college
education. Read Text 3 again and match the supporting evidence with
examples listed below.
1. Editors requesting simplification of textbooks
2. Students calling parents for support
3. The author needing to explain things he wants students to perceive
4. Students wanting an A for any effort they make on a course
5. Students’ inability to derive future and present value formulas
a. Inability to read
b. Inability to take responsibility for mistakes
c. Inability to understand complicated ideas
d. Poor attitude to work
e. Inability to read critically
Task 2
Think about how well the author supports his claim with examples and
supporting details.
14
Task 3
Now write down your answers to the following questions.
a. Do you still agree or disagree with the author’s views to the same extent as
in Activity 1?
b. The author supports his opinions or claims by giving examples. Do you

find this supporting detail helps to convince you about his point of view?
1.7 Using evidence from other sources

Academic writers commonly use opinions and facts from other sources
to support their arguments. In the next activity you practise identifying how
references to other sources can signal whether a writer is drawing on fact or
opinion as support.
ACTIVITY 7
Task 1
Examine the nine statements below. Each refers to one or more

researchers or writers, and some of the statements give facts, while others
give opinions. For each statement, choose one of the options: ‘Fact’ or
‘Opinion’. Then circle the word indicating opinion.
Question 1: Chomsky proposed that language is rule-based.
A. fact B. opinion
Question 2: Thorndike, Watson and, later, Skinner, Eysenck and others

argued that psychology should be scientific in its approach.
A. fact B. opinion
Question 3: Greer et al. developed a form of computational model called a

‘connectionist network’.
A. fact B. opinion
15
Question 4: Claude Shannon in 1938 showed how core aspects of reasoning
could be implemented in simple electrical circuits.
A. fact B. opinion
Question 5: Brentano believed that mental states comprise mental acts and
mental contents.
A. fact B. opinion
Question 6: However, research by Mumford and Power (2003) has revealed a

strong sense of community spirit and strong social networks in two deprived
areas of London, both of which have experienced considerable population
change.
A. fact B. opinion
Question 7: Raymond Gibbs has carried out several experiments designed to

tap into people’s metaphorical understanding of words and phrases.
A. fact B. opinion
Question 8: Milgate (1990) uses Conversation Analysis to explore interaction

in the language classroom.
A. fact B. opinion
Question 9: Hurst (2006) suggests that mind maps are a useful way of
representing grammatical structures visually.
A. fact B. opinion
1.8 Style and language

The aim of the next activity is to look more specifically at the style and
language of Text 3, ‘The accounting cycle: students then and now’.
16
ACTIVITY 8
Task 1
Read Text 3 again and say whether you agree or disagree with each of
the following statements about the text. Give examples to support your view
or make comments.
Question 1: It is personal.
A. agree B. disagree
Question 2: It has some examples of general academic language.
Question 3: It has lots of opinions which express the views of the author.
Question 4: It contains language which shows the attitude of the author.
Question 5: It contains paragraphs that are well organized around a central

idea.
1.9 Context
1.9.1 Author and type of text (1)
In the next activity you use your previous analysis of Text 3 to place
the text in context according to its author and what type of text it is.
17
ACTIVITY 9
Task 1
Answer the questions below. Give reasons for your answers.
1. Who is the author? How can you know?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. What’s his purpose in writing? Why?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. What type of text is it? How can you know?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
4. Where would you find this text?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
5. How reliable do you think the information in this text is? Why (not)?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Task 2
How would you describe the author’s attitude to his students? Choose
one answer from the list below.
A. sad B. amused C. critical
18
Task 3
At the end of the original text there is a statement which reads:
This essay reflects the opinion of the author and not necessarily the
opinion of The Pennsylvania State University.
 Why do you think this statement was written? Write some ideas in the
box below.
2. Being a critical reader

In this section you will practise reading two texts in a critical way. The
texts covered are from different disciplines but are similar in the subject they
discuss.
2.1 Introducing the two texts
In the next activity you will prepare to read two texts on the subjects of
human nature and evolution by thinking about your own views and attitudes.
ACTIVITY 10
Task
Think about the following questions and write down your ideas about
them.
1. Which things are good and bad about human beings?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………….………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. What do you think causes human beings to do bad things? For example,
do you think people are naturally programmed to do bad things because
19
they are human or do you think that people turn bad because of their
family backgrounds or the influences of the societies in which we live?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………….………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….
3. Do you feel positive or negative about the future of the human race?
Why? What do you think are the biggest challenges that humans face in
the 21st century?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………….……………………………………………………
…….………………………………………………………………………
2.2 Preparing to read the two texts
The two texts you are going to read contain some theories and ideas
that you might want to understand more about before you read them.
ACTIVITY 11
Task 1
The first text is on the subject of anthropathology. This is a new,
made-up word from two words originating from Greek: anthro, meaning ‘to
do with human beings’, and pathology, meaning ‘to do with sickness or
disease’. What do you think the word anthropathology means?
20
Task 2
The texts contain the following words and ideas:
 genes
 survival instinct
 natural selection
 evolution
 survival of the fittest
 creationists.
How many of them do you know about? Do an internet search to find
out about the unfamiliar ones. Also do an internet search to find out more
about those you already know something about.
Task 3
Below are some simple definitions of these words and ideas. Match each
definition with the correct word or idea, to check your understanding.
1. The fittest beings survive and evolve and the weakest don’t.
2. A strong instinct that living creatures must survive whatever the

circumstances.
3. A process in which the characteristics of living creatures that make them

more likely to survive are inherited. It was originally Charles Darwin’s
idea.
4. The process through which all living creatures develop over time from
earlier versions of themselves.
5. People who believe that God created human beings. They do not believe
in evolution.
6. These are part of the biology of all living creatures. They programme
human beings to inherit characteristics from their parents, grandparents
and ancestors.
21
a. Survival instinct
b. Evolution
c. Genes
d. Natural selection
e. Creationists
f. Survival of the fittest
2.3 What is the text ‘Anthropathology’ saying and doing?

In the next activity you will explore what the first text says and does.
ACTIVITY 12
Task 1
Read Text 4 twice. Use any reading strategies you think are
appropriate. In the box below, record any unknown words which you think
are important for the meaning of parts of the text or the whole text. Try to
understand their meaning from the context or use a dictionary if this doesn’t
work. Don’t forget to note down important words.
ANTHROPATHOLOGY
1. Anthropathology is the sickness of humankind and the exploration and

study of that condition. It is something like universal neurosis or original sin,
or simply ‘the human condition’. It is evidenced in greed, deception, violence,
patriarchal domination, and other aspects of our existence. Anthropathology
can be witnessed at both individual and collective levels, for example in
everyday personal problems and mental health problems; and in racism,
international conflict and war. Anthropathology is the dysfunctional aspect of
humanity’s undoubted resourcefulness and impressive technological
achievements.
2. For those who consider this to be an appropriate area of study, the

question naturally arises as to the origins of this phenomenon. One possibility
22
might be entropy. According to Rifkin (1985), all things, including ourselves,
our institutions and the solar system itself are subject to degeneration. Another
view held by Taylor (2005) is that there are specific reasons for the
degeneration of human nature to be found in history. Taylor (2005) suggests
that around 6000 years ago peaceful hunter gatherers were forced to evolve due
to harsh living conditions. This led to human beings being alienated from
nature and from their true selves.
3. Anthropathology might be regarded as inevitably pessimistic or as

drawing attention to the worst facing us (and within us). The Anthropathology
thesis has undeniably unpopular elements. Anthropathology challenges
religious tradition but also challenges belief in individual rational autonomy –
the ability of human beings to be in control of their own destiny. Many may
want to play up the positive aspects of human beings and deny that we are so
destructive, or wish to underline the idea that only some individuals, groups or
eras are evil.
4. However, Anthropathology as a potential academic discipline (or

interdisciplinary arena) raises urgent questions about climate change, religious
and political conflict, resource depletion and over-population. Our collective
unwillingness as human beings to address these challenges may prove our final
downfall. But Anthropathology also challenges many assumptions about
individual problems, for example, the view of mental health problems as
caused primarily within families or by our own irrational thinking. Instead, a
complex interplay of genetic forces are seen as powerful causes and reinforcers
of individual problems.
(Feltham, C. (2007) What’s Wrong With Us? The Anthropathology

Thesis, Chichester, Wiley)
23
Task 2
Identify the central idea and other key ideas in each paragraph of Text
4. Make notes (as a mind map or in linear form).
Paragraph 1
Anthropathology: ……………………………………………………………..
Examples: greed, …………….., violence, ………………….. domination
 (a) ………………….. level: personal problems, mental health issues
 (b) ……………………level: war, racism
Paragraph 2
Origins:
 (a) …………………
 (b) ‘The Fall’: evolution from hunter-gatherers (6000 years ago) – divorce
from true nature
Paragraph 3
Anthropathology – ……………… ………………. – challenges:
 …………………….. beliefs
 belief in individual ……………………
 belief in positive aspects of human beings
Paragraph 4
Anthropathology – important academic discipline – addresses:
 Global issues – failure to address could lead to ………………… of human

race
 Individual issues – genetic causes
24
Task 3
The list below shows the organisation of ideas in Text 4 but in the
wrong order. Match the function of each paragraph with the paragraph
number. Think about what each paragraph is doing.
Using the following two lists, match each numbered item with the
correct letter.
1. Explains the existence of anthropathology

2. Presents opposing views
3. Argues for the importance of anthropathology
4. Defines anthropathology
a. Paragraph 3
b. Paragraph 1
c. Paragraph 4
d. Paragraph 2
Task 4
Now think about the following questions and write down some ideas.
(a) Do the ideas in the paragraphs of Text 4 link together logically? Does the
text present a solid, well-supported argument?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Does the text provide convincing examples or references to other writers to
support the claims it makes?
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Does the text contain any sweeping generalisations?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
25
Task 5
Did you enjoy reading this text? Did you find the subject interesting?
If yes, why? If no, why not?
2.4 What is the text ‘The science of evolution’ saying and doing?
In the next activity you will analyse the second text in the same way as
you did the first text.
ACTIVITY 13
Task 1
Read Text 5, ‘The science of evolution’, twice. Use any reading

strategies you think are appropriate. Record any unknown words which you
think are important for the meaning of parts of the text or the whole text and
try to understand their meaning from the context or use a dictionary if this
doesn’t work. Don’t forget to record important words.
THE SCIENCE OF EVOLUTION
The science of evolution is fundamental to understanding how our world

works. Disease-causing and disease-spreading organisms can proliferate in
several, sometimes many, different species, and take opportunities to colonise
new ones, including people. As a result they can spread rapidly and cause
severe disease in populations that have never, or not recently, encountered
them.
History and natural selection are relevant in the sphere of the mind as
well as the body. We tend to think of ourselves as autonomous beings in full
control of our behaviour and we do, of course, have freedom of action, but how
we make choices is influenced by how our minds have evolved. For example,
why are we more scared of snakes than of fatal vehicle accidents that are so
much the greater danger for most of us?
26
Evolution by natural selection can also help us understand moral codes
that were once the exclusive province of religion. A philosophy of ‘survival of
the fittest’ sounds amoral or even immoral, but evolution is much more
sophisticated than this misleading phrase implies. Humans are social animals
and our individual survival depends upon successful relationships with our
neighbours.
Once again, evolution history shows the profound consequences of

natural selection. If evolution trespasses on realms like morality and creation
that were once the exclusive province of religion, is religious belief compatible
with the science of evolution? Many people believe that it is, even though
creationists (and some Darwinists) would have us believe otherwise.
And finally, what of our evolutionary future? There is little reason to

doubt that humans are still evolving, perhaps faster than ever because of our
burgeoning numbers, but the biggest influence on our future is undoubtedly the
damage we are doing to our own environment. Life has continuously
transformed our planet since photosynthesis evolved, long before humans
appeared, but we are the first species to be able to understand the consequences
of our actions and, potentially, to alter our fate.
(The Open University (2008) S170 Darwin and evolution, Milton

Keynes, The Open University).
Task 2
Identify the central idea and other key ideas in each paragraph. Make
notes.
Paragraph 1
Importance of ………………… for understanding of world: example =

diseases and threat to populations
Paragraph 2
27
Relevance of natural …………………… to the mind: evolution
………………….. our choices
Paragraph 3
Natural selection explains ……………..: survival depends on social

relationships.
Paragraph 4
Evolution questions ………................ ……………………..
Paragraph 5
 Evolution continues to …………………. planet
 Biggest threat = ……………………..
 Humans = first species to understand our actions (damage to environment)

and possibly alter future.
Task 3
The list below shows the organisation of ideas in Text 5, but in the
wrong order. Match the function of each paragraph with the paragraph
number.
1. Makes a central claim about evolution (main idea) and supports with one
example.
2. Makes a claim about the importance of evolution for understanding our

moral rules in society.
3. Argues that we are still evolving but that we are sufficiently evolved to
fight against our fate (created by ourselves).
4. Makes a claim about the importance of evolution for understanding the

mind and supports it.
28
5. Makes a claim about the importance of evolution history and its possible
consequences for religion.
Task 4
Now think about the following questions and write down some ideas.
(a) Do the ideas in the paragraphs of the text link together logically? Does the
text present a solid, well-supported argument?
(b) Does the text provide convincing examples or references to other writers
to support the claims it makes?
(c) Does the text contain any sweeping generalisations?
Task 5
Make a list of the ideas in Text 5 which are similar to those in Text 4,
‘Anthropathology’.
Task 6
Decide whether you enjoyed reading Text 5.
2.5 Comparing the two texts

2.5.1 What are the similarities and differences? (1)
In the next activity you ask questions about Texts 4 and 5 to get a critical
overview of their similarities and differences.
29
Task 1
Critically read Texts 4 and 5 again (using skim reading, scan reading
or close reading). Then consider the statements below. Decide if the
statement applies to the text and write down some examples to support your
decision.
Question 1: Which text uses factual supporting evidence?
A. text 4 B. text 5 C. both texts
Question 2: Which text uses the opinions of other writers to support ideas?
Question 3: Which text shows whether there are other arguments which
contradict their arguments?
Question 4: Which text provides more arguments that cannot be challenged?
Question 5: Which text contains more opinions?
Question 6: Which text is ‘academic’ in style?
Question 7: Which text contains more examples of hedging?
30
2.5.2 What are the similarities and differences? (2)
Task 2: Answer the following questions
Question 1: Who is the author of Text 4 and Text 5?
Question 2: What is their purpose in writing?
- Text 4: …………………………………………………………………………
- Text 5: …………………………………………………………………………
Question 3: What type of text is it?
- Text 4: …………………………………………………………………………
- Text 5: …………………………………………………………………………
Question 4: Where could you find it?
- Text 4: …………………………………………………………………………
- Text 5: …………………………………………………………………………
Question 5: What subject area is the text from?
- Text 4: …………………………………………………………………………
- Text 5: …………………………………………………………………………
Task 3
Think about the following questions and write down some ideas.
Question 1: Which of the two texts is more pessimistic? Why?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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Question 2
Which of the two texts is based on accepted fact and which is based on
beliefs you might challenge?
……………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusion
You have developed your critical reading skills by asking

……………….1 about texts. You thought about your own ……………….2 and
how these might influence your reading before analysing texts from different
disciplines. You considered the importance of distinguishing between
……………….3 and ……………….4 and of using ……………….5 sources of
evidence to support opinions. In your analysis of the texts you also considered
a variety of ……………….6 relating to the author, the ……………….7 of text
and the context. Finally, you compared two texts from different subject areas
written about similar themes.
Key learning points
In this lesson you have:
 considered the importance of examining your own attitudes to texts;
 studied the organisation of argument texts;
 distinguished between facts and opinions in texts;
 examined hedging as a technique used by writers to express opinions and

avoid making unsupported generalisations;
 considered the importance of reliable evidence to support claims;
 practised asking questions about the author, type and context of texts.
32
Glossary
Function of a text
The function of a text, section of text, sentence or clause is what it
does. For example, a text, section of text or sentence in a text may
describe, explain, recount, compare, give a result, and so on.
hedging
Using language to signal that you are not absolutely certain about
what you say or write. You do not present what you are saying as a
fact. This may be because you do not know everything about the topic
so are not sure or you are aware that other people have different
views, so you are respecting their viewpoint, or because you are
speaking/writing to someone who may take offence if you are too
direct in what you say. Examples: (1) Anthropathology might be
regarded as drawing attention to the worst facing us; (2) It seems that
today’s students cannot read critically; (3) Past
students probably thought of education as a privilege; current
students undoubtedly view it as an entitlement.
33
3. Critical Reading Guidelines
3.1 Reiteration of Critical Reading
The most common form of the word critical is 'to criticise or find fault
with something'. This is different, however, from the meaning of the word
when used in phrases such as critical thinking, critical writing or critical
reading. In this context the word means 'exercising careful judgement and
evaluating the evidence'. Critical reading, therefore, involves questioning a
text, rather than assuming everything it contains is factual. This means that in
addition to what a text says, the reader needs to consider how it says it, who is
saying it, when it was said, where it was said (i.e. published), and why it was
said (i.e. the writer's purpose), in order to be able to evaluate the evidence and
make a careful judgement as to how trustworthy the information is. This may
be important in deciding whether and how to use this source, for example in
your own writing.
3.2 Critical reading vs. active reading
Many authors equate critical reading and active reading, though in fact
they are not the same. Active reading involves engaging with a text in order to
understand what it contains. This could mean highlighting key words and
phrases, making annotations in the margin, testing yourself as you read,
discussing with or explaining it to someone else after reading, as well as
reading critically by asking questions about the text. Critical reading is
therefore a form of active reading, but is only one of several ways to read
actively. This means that it is possible to read a text actively, for example by
highlighting it and making annotations, without reading critically.
34
3.3 How to read critically
In order to read critically you will need to ask certain questions about the
text. One area to consider is the author and source. Questions for this area can
be asked before you read the text, and are mostly quite straightforward.
Answers to these questions may help you decide whether the text is worth
reading at all. Another area to consider is the evidence the writer uses to
support his points. These questions are more difficult, and require careful
reading of the text and consideration of the meaning. Being able to answer
questions such as these will also improve your ability as a writer. A final area
to look at is the assumptions and bias which the writer may have. These are the
most difficult questions, and may need you to analyse the language the writer
uses in order to answer them.
Questions on each of these areas are given below. There are 20 questions
in total. These questions can be asked in any order, and you do not need to find
answers to all of them. Some are wh- questions, while others are yes/no
questions. The yes/no questions have been phrased so that the answer should
be 'Yes' if this it is a reliable source, while the answer 'No' would indicate
some potential problems. If there are too many 'No' answers it would indicate
that this is perhaps not a source you should be using in your academic writing.
Author/Source
The following questions relate to the author and source.
1. Who is the author? Is the author an expert in this field?
2. What is the source of the text? Is it trustworthy?
3. When was it published? Is it recent?
4. Who is the intended audience?
5. What is the author's purpose? Is it a neutral purpose (e.g. to explain or to

inform) rather than a more biased purpose (e.g. to persuade)?
35
Evidence
The following questions relate to the evidence the writer uses.
6. How strong is the evidence?
7. Are all the points made by the author supported by evidence?
8. Does the writer avoid making unsupported generalisations?
9. Is there a clear distinction between fact and the author’s opinion?
10. Are citations used? If so, are the cited sources trustworthy and recent?
11. If there are any images or diagrams, are they clear? Do they relate directly
to points in the text and support the author’s argument?
12. If it is a research article, is the methodology valid (e.g. sample size, method
of sampling)? Are the limitations clear? Are the results consistent with the
objectives?
Assumptions/Bias
The following questions relate to the assumptions the writer has, and
any potential bias.
13. What assumptions has the writer made? Are they clear to the reader? Are
they valid?
14. What is the author’s stance (i.e. position = quan điểm) on the topic? Is this
explicit?
15. Does the writer present a balanced viewpoint? Are other viewpoints
considered (e.g. via counter-arguments)?
16. Does the writer represent the ideas of others accurately?
17. Are the writer's conclusions reasonable in the light of the evidence
presented?
36
18. Is the writer's language neutral? Does the writer use hedge words e.g. It
appears that... This may be caused by...) and avoid the use of emphatic
words/phrases (e.g. It is obvious... Clearly... Of course...)?
19. Does the writer avoid using emotional language and dramatic images?
20. Are the examples representative and free from bias?
GROUP ASSIGNMENT
Choose an article for your group and write a reflection (about 200
words) about it.
37
PART TWO
READING COMPREHENSION
PROCEDURES FOR A READING PASSAGE
1. Skim the reading passage to determine the main idea and the overall
organization of ideas in the passage. You do not need to understand every
detail in each passage to answer the questions correctly. It is therefore a
waste of time to read the passage with the intent of understanding every
single detail before you try to answer the questions.
2. Look ahead at the questions to determine what language skills are being
tested in the questions. Questions related to different language skills are
answered in different ways.
3. Find the section of the passage that deals with each question. The
language skill tells you exactly where to look in the passage to find correct
answers.
• For main idea questions, look at the first line of each paragraph.
• For directly and indirectly answered detail questions, choose a key word
in the question, and skim for that key word (or a related idea) in order in
the passage.
• For pronoun questions, the question will tell you where the pronoun is
located in the passage.
• For transition questions, look at the beginning or the end of the passage.
• For vocabulary questions, the question will tell you where the word is
located in the passage.
• For where-in-the-passage questions, the answer choices give you the

four possible locations of the correct answer.
• For tone, purpose, and course questions, look at the first line of each
38
paragraph.
4. Read the part of the passage that contains the answer carefully. The
answer will probably be in a very predictable place in the passage.
5. Choose the best answer to each question from the four choices listed in
your test book. You can choose the best answer according to what is given
in the appropriate section of the passage, eliminate definitely wrong
answers, and mark your best guess on the answer sheet.
39
QUESTIONS ABOUT THE IDEAS OF THE PASSAGE
SKILL 1: ANSWER MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS CORRECTLY
If a passage consists of only one paragraph, you should study the

beginning of that paragraph to determine the main idea.
Sample passage 1
In the philosophy of John Dewey, a sharp distinction is made between
intelligence and reasoning. According to Dewey, intelligence is the only
absolute way to achieve a balance between realism and idealism, between
practicality and wisdom of life. Intelligence involves "interacting with other
things and knowing them," while reasoning is merely the act of an observer,
"... a mind that beholds or grasps objects outside the world of things". With
reasoning, a level of mental certainty can be achieved, but it is through
intelligence that control is taken of events that shape one's life.
Question: What is the topic of this passage?

Ⓐ The intelligence of John Dewey
Ⓑ Distinctions made by John Dewey
Ⓒ Dewey's ideas on the ability to reason
Ⓓ How intelligence differs from reasoning in Dewey's works
If a passage consists of more than one paragraph, you should study the
beginning of each paragraph to determine the main idea.
40
Sample passage 2
Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen is continuously fed into
biological circulation. In this process, certain algae and bacteria convert
nitrogen into ammonia (NH3).This newly-created ammonia is then for the
most part absorbed by plants.
The opposite process of denitrification returns nitrogen to the air. During

the process of denitrification, bacteria cause some of the nitrates from the soil
to convert into gaseous nitrogen or nitrous oxide (N2O). In this gaseous form,
the nitrogen returns to the atmosphere.
Question: Which of the following could be the best title for the passage?
ⒶThe Process of Nitrogen Fixation
Ⓑ Two Nitrogen Processes
Ⓒ The Return of Nitrogen to the Air
Ⓓ The Effect of Nitrogen on Plant Life
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS

- What is the topic of the passage?
- What is the subject of the passage?
HOW TO IDENTIFY - What is the main idea of the passage?
THE QUESTION - What is the author's main point in the

passage?
- With what is the author primarily concerned?
- Which of the following would be the best title?
- The answer to this type of question can

WHERE TO FIND
generally be determined by looking at the first
THE ANSWER
sentence of each paragraph.
HOW TO ANSWER 1. Read the first line of each paragraph.
41
THE QUESTION 2. Look for a common theme or idea in the first
lines.
3. Pass your eyes quickly over the rest of the
passage to check that you have really found the
topic sentence(s).
4. Eliminate any definitely wrong answers and
choose the best answer from the remaining
choices.
EXERCISE 1: Study each of the passages and choose the best answers to
the questions that follow. In this exercise, each passage is followed by several
main idea, topic, or title questions so that the students can practice this type
of question.
PASSAGE ONE (Questions 1-2)
Line Fort Knox, Kentucky, is the site of a U.S. army post, but it is even
more renowned for the Fort Knox Bullion Depository, the massive
vault that contains the bulk of the U.S. government's gold deposits.
Completed in 1936, the vault is housed in a two-story building
5 constructed of granite, steel, and concrete; the vault itself is made of
steel and concrete and has a door that weighs more than twenty tons.
Naturally, the most up-to-date security devices available are in place at
Fort Knox, and the army post nearby provides further protection.
1. Which of the following best describes the topic of the passage?

A. The city of Fort Knox, Kentucky
B. The federal gold depository
C. The U.S. army post at Fort Knox
D. Gold bullion
2. Which of the following would be the best title for the passage?
A. The Massive Concrete Vault
42
B. Fort Knox Security
C. Where the United States Keeps Its
D. A visit to Kentucky
PASSAGE TWO (Questions 3-4)
Line One identifying characteristic of minerals is their relative hardness,

which can be determined by scratching one mineral with another. In
this type of test, a harder mineral can scratch a softer one, but a softer
mineral is unable to scratch the harder one. The Mohs' hardness scale
5 is used to rank minerals according to hardness. Ten minerals are listed
in this scale, ranging from talc with a hardness of 1 to diamond with a
hardness of 10. On this scale, quartz (number 7) is harder than feldspar
(number 6) and is therefore able to scratch it; however, feldspar is
unable to make a mark on quartz.
3. Which of the following best 4. The main idea of this passage is

states the subject of this that
A. the hardness of a mineral can
passage?
be determined by its ability
A. The hardness of diamonds to make a mark on other
B. Identifying minerals by minerals
means of a scratch test B. diamonds, with a hardness of
C. Feldspar on the Mohs' scale 10 on the Moh’s scale, can
D. Recognizing minerals in scratch all other minerals
their natural state C. a softer mineral cannot be
scratched by a harder
mineral
D. talc is the first mineral listed
on the Moh’s scale
SKILL 2: RECOGNIZE THE ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS
43
On the paper and the computer tests, you may be asked to determine
how the ideas in one paragraph (or paragraphs) relate to the ideas in another
paragraph (or paragraphs). Look at an example that asks you to determine
how the information in the passage is organized.
Sample passage:
If asked who invented the game of baseball, most Americans would

probably reply that it was their belief that Abner Doubleday did. They
believe this because the story about Doubleday is part of the tradition of
baseball.
Doubleday was given credit for this invention early in the twentieth
century when sporting-goods manufacturer Spaulding inaugurated a
commission to research the question of who invented baseball. In 1908, a
report was published by the commission in which Abner Doubleday, a U.S.
Army officer from Cooperstown, New York, was given credit for the
invention of the game. The National Baseball Hall of Fame was established
in Cooperstown in honor of Doubleday.
Today, most sports historians are in agreement that Doubleday really

did not have much to do with the development of baseball. Instead, baseball
seems to be a close relative of the English game of rounders and probably has
English rather than American roots.
1. In this passage
Ⓐ an idea is presented and then refuted
Ⓑ a concept is followed by examples
Ⓒ a cause is followed by an effect
Ⓓ a belief is supported with reasons
2. Which paragraph gives the historical background of a particular belief?

Ⓐ Paragraph 1 Ⓑ Paragraph 2 Ⓒ Paragraph 3 Ⓓ None
44
The following chart outlines the key information that you should
remember about questions on the organization of ideas.
ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS
HOW TO - How is the information in the passage organized?
IDENTIFY THE - How is the information in the second paragraph related
QUESTION to the information in the first paragraph?
WHERE TO The answer to this type of question can generally be

FIND THE determined by looking at the first sentence of the
ANSWER appropriate paragraphs.
1. Read the first line of each paragraph.

HOW TO 2. Look for words that show relationships among
ANSWER THE the paragraphs.
QUESTION 3. Choose the answer that best expresses the
relationship.
EXERCISE 2: Study each of the passages and choose the best answers to
the questions that follow.
Line Conflict within an organization is not always viewed as

undesirable. In fact, various managers have widely divergent ideas on
the value that conflict can have.
According to the traditional view of conflict, conflict is harmful

5 to an organization. Managers with this traditional view of conflict see
it as their role in an organization to rid the organization of any possible
sources of conflict.
The interactionist view of conflict, on the other hand, holds that

conflict can serve an important function in an organization by reducing
45
10 complacency among workers and causing positive changes to occur.
Managers who hold an interactionist view of conflict may actually take
steps to stimulate conflict within the organization.
1. How is the information in the 2. Which paragraph supports the

passage organized? view that organizational conflict
A. The origin of ideas about can be beneficial?
conflict is presented. A. Paragraph 1
B. Contrasting views of conflict B. Paragraph 2
are presented. C. Paragraph 3
C. Two theorists discuss the D. None
strengths and weaknesses of
their views on conflict.
D. Examples of conflict within
organizations are presented.
SKILL 3: ANSWER STATED DETAIL QUESTIONS CORRECTLY
A stated detail question asks about one piece of information in the

passage rather than the passage as a whole. The answers to these questions
are generally given in order in the passage, and the correct answer is often a
restatement of what is given in the passage. This means that the correct
answer often expresses the same idea as what is written in the passage, but
the words are not exactly the same.
46
Sample Passage
Williamsburg is a historic city in Virginia that was settled by English
colonists in 1633, twenty-six years after the first permanent English colony in
America was settled at Jamestown. In the beginning, the colony at
Williamsburg was named Middle Plantation because of its location in the
middle of a peninsula between two rivers, the York and the James. The site for
Williamsburg had been selected by the colonists because the soil drainage was
better there than at the Jamestown location, and there were fewer mosquitoes.
The question:
1. The passage indicates that Jamestown

A. was settled in 1633
B. was settled twenty-six years after Williamsburg
C. was the first permanent English colony in America
D. was originally named Middle Plantation
2. According to the passage, the colonists chose Williamsburg because

A. it was in England
B. there were no nearby rivers
C. there were lots of mosquitoes
D. the soil drained well
The following chart outlines the key information that you should
remember about stated detail questions.
47
STATED DETAIL QUESTIONS
HOW TO  According to the passage,...

IDENTIFY THE  It is stated in the passage...
QUESTION  The passage indicates that...
WHERE TO 
The answers to these questions are found in order in the
FIND THE
passage.
ANSWER
1. Choose a key word in the question.

2. Skim in the appropriate part of the passage for the key
HOWTO word or idea.
ANSWER THE 3. Read the sentence that contains the key word or idea
QUESTION carefully.
4. Eliminate the definitely wrong answers and choose the
best answer from the remaining choices.
EXERCISE 3
Line Ice ages, those periods when ice covered extensive areas of the
Earth, are known to have occurred at least six times. Past ice ages can
be recognized from rock strata that show evidence of foreign materials
deposited by moving walls of ice or melting glaciers. Ice ages can also
5 be recognized from land formations that have been produced from
moving walls of ice, such as U-shaped valleys, sculptured landscapes,
and polished rock faces.
1. According to the passage, what happens during an ice age?

A. Rock strata are recognized by geologists.
B. Evidence of foreign materials is found.
C. Ice covers a large portion of the Earth's surface.
D. Ice melts six times.
48
2. The passage covers how many different methods of recognizing past ice
ages?
A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four
3. According to the passage, what in the rock strata is a clue to geologists of a

past ice age?
A. Ice
B. Melting glaciers
C. U-shaped valleys
C. Substances from other areas
SKILL 4: FIND "UNSTATED" DETAILS
You will sometimes be asked in the reading section of both the TOEFL
test to find an answer that is not stated or not mentioned or not true in the
passage. This type of question really means that three of the answers are
stated, mentioned, or true in the passage, while one answer is not.
You should note that there are two kinds of answers to this type of
question: (1) there are three true answers and one that is not true according to
the passage, or (2) there are three true answers and one that is not mentioned
in the passage.
Sample Passage
In English, there are many different kinds of expressions that people
use to give a name to anything whose name is unknown or momentarily
forgotten. The word gadget is one such word. It was first used by British
sailors in the 1850s and probably came from the French word gachette, which
was a small hook. In everyday use, the word has a more general meaning.
Other words are also used to give a name to something unnamed or unknown,
and these words tend to be somewhat imaginative. Some of the more
commonly used expressions are a what-d'ye-call-it, a whatsis, a thingamabob,
a thingamajig, a doodad, or a doohickey.
49
Questions:
1. Which of the following is NOT true about the word gadget1?
A. It is used to name something when the name is not known.
B. It was used at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
C. It most likely came from a word in the French language.
D. Its first known use was by British sailors.
2. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage as an expression

for something that is not known?
A. what-is-it
B. A gadget
C. A thingamabob
D. A doohickey
"UNSTATED" DETAIL QUESTIONS
HOW TO  Which of the following is not stated...?

IDENTIFY  Which of the following is not mentioned...?
THE  Which of the following is not discussed...?
QUESTION  All of the following are true except....
WHERE TO The answers to these questions are found in order in the

FIND THE passage.
ANSWER
2. Scan the appropriate place in the passage for the key

HOW TO word (or related idea).
ANSWER
3. Read the sentence that contains the key word or idea
THE carefully.
QUESTION
4. Look for answers that are definitely true according to
the passage. Eliminate those answers.
5. Choose the answer that is not true or not discussed in
the passage.
50
EXERCISE 4
Line Blood plasma is a clear, almost colorless liquid. It consists of

blood from which the red and white blood cells have been removed. It
is often used in transfusions because a patient generally needs the
plasma portion of the blood more than the other components.
5 Plasma differs in several important ways from whole blood. First

of all, plasma can be mixed for all donors and does not have to be from
the right blood group, as whole blood does. In addition, plasma can be
dried and stored, while whole blood cannot.
1. All of the following are true about blood plasma EXCEPT that
A. it is a deeply colored liquid
B. blood cells have been taken out of it
C. patients are often transfused with it
D. it is generally more important to the patient than other parts of whole
blood
2. Which of the following is NOT stated about whole blood?

A. It is different from plasma.
B. It cannot be dried.
C. It is impossible to keep it in storage for a long time.
D. It is a clear, colorless liquid.
SKILL 5: FIND PRONOUN REFERENTS
In the reading section of the TOEFL test, you will sometimes be asked
to determine to which noun a pronoun refers. In a pronoun reference
question, it is important to understand that a noun is generally used first in
a passage, and the pronoun that refers to it comes after. Whenever you are
51
asked which noun a pronoun refers to, you should look before the pronoun
to find the noun.
Sample Passage
Line Carnivorous plants, such as the sundew and the Venus-flytrap,

are generally found in humid areas where there is an inadequate
supply of nitrogen in the soil. In order to survive, these plants have
developed mechanisms to trap insects within their foliage. They have
5 digestive fluids to obtain the necessary nitrogen from the insects.
These plants trap the insects in a variety of ways. The sundew has
sticky hairs on its leaves; when an insect lands on these leaves, it gets
caught up in the sticky hairs, and the leaf wraps itself around the
insect. The leaves of the Venus-flytrap function more like a trap,
snapping suddenly and forcefully shut around an insect.
The questions:
1. The pronoun They in line 4 refers to
A. humid areas
B. these plants
C. insects
D. digestive fluids
2. What does the pronoun it in line 6 refers to?

A. an insect
B. these leaves
C. the sundew
D. a trap
The following chart outlines the key information that you should remember
about pronoun referents.
52
PRONOUN REFERENTS
HOW TO  What does the pronoun “...” in line X refer to?

IDENTIFY THE  The pronoun "..."in line X refers to which of the
QUESTION following?
WHERE TO The line where the pronoun is located is given in the

FIND THE question. The noun that the pronoun refers to is generally
ANSWER found before the pronoun.
1. Locate the pronoun in the passage.
2. Look before the pronoun for nouns that agree with

HOW TO the pronoun.
ANSWER THE 3. Try each of the nouns in the context in place of the
QUESTION pronoun.
4. Eliminate any definitely wrong answers and choose

the best answer from the remaining choices.
TOEFL EXERCISE 5
Line The full moon that occurs nearest the equinox of the Sun has
become known as the harvest moon. It is a bright moon which allows
farmers to work late into the night for several nights; they can work
when the moon is at its brightest to bring in the fall harvest. The
5 harvest moon, of course, occurs at different times of the year in the
northern and southern hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere, the
harvest moon occurs in September at the time of the autumnal
equinox. In the southern hemisphere, the harvest moon occurs in
March at the time of the vernal equinox.
53
1. The pronoun "It" in line 2 refers to
A. the equinox
B. the Sun
C. the harvest moon
D. the night
2. The pronoun “they” in line 3 refers to which of the following?

A. farmers
B. several nights
C. hemispheres
D. the full moon
3. What does the word “its” in line 4 refer to?

A. the Sun
B. the fall harvest
C. the equinox
D. the moon
REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1-5)
Line Lincoln's now famous Gettysburg Address was not, on the

occasion of its delivery, recognized as the masterpiece that it is today.
Lincoln was not even the primary speaker at the ceremonies, held at
the height of the Civil War in 1863, to dedicate the battlefield at
5 Gettysburg. The main speaker was orator Edward Everett, whose two-
hour speech was followed by Lincoln's shorter remarks. Lincoln began
his small portion of the program with the words that today are
immediately recognized by most Americans: "Four score and seven
years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation,
10 conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are
created equal." At the time of the speech, little notice was given to
54
what Lincoln had said, and Lincoln considered his appearance at the
ceremonies rather unsuccessful. After his speech appeared in print,
appreciation for his words began to grow, and today it is recognized as
one of the all-time greatest speeches.
1. The main idea of this passage is that

A. the Gettysburg Address has always been regarded as a masterpiece
B. at the time of its delivery the Gettysburg Address was truly appreciated
as a masterpiece
C. it was not until after 1863 that Lincoln's speech at Gettysburg took its
place in history
D. Lincoln is better recognized today than he was at the time of his
presidency
2. Which of the following is NOT true about the ceremonies at Gettysburg

during the Civil War?
A. Everett was the main speaker.
B. Everett gave a two-hour speech.
C. Lincoln was the closing speaker of the ceremonies.
D. Lincoln's speech was longer than Everett's.
3. According to the passage, when Lincoln spoke at the Gettysburg

ceremonies,
A. his words were immediately recognized by most Americans
B. he spoke for only a short period of time
C. he was enthusiastically cheered
D. he was extremely proud of his performance
4. When did Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begin to receive public acclaim?

A. After it had been published
B. Immediately after the speech
C. Not until the present day
D. After Lincoln received growing recognition
55
5. What does the word “it” in line 11 refer to?
A. his appearance
B. his speech
C. appreciation
D. his words
INDIRECTLY ANSWERED QUESTIONS

Some questions in the Reading section of the TOEFL test will require
answers that are not directly stated in the passage. To answer these multiple-
choice questions correctly, you will have to draw conclusions from
information that is given in the passage. Two common types of indirectly
answered questions are (1) implied detail questions, and (2) transition
questions.
SKILL 6: ANSWER IMPLIED DETAIL QUESTIONS CORRECTLY
You will sometimes be asked to answer a multiple-choice question

about a reading passage by drawing a conclusion from a specific detail or
details in the passage. Questions of this type contain the words implied,
inferred, likely, or probably to let you know that the answer to the question is
not directly stated. In this type of question, it is important to understand that
you do not have to "pull the answer out of thin air." Instead, some
information will be given in the passage, and you will draw a conclusion
from that information.
Sample passage
Line The Hawaiian language is a melodious language in which all
words are derived from an alphabet of only twelve letters, the five
vowels a, e, i, o, u and the seven consonants h, k, I, m, n, p, w. Each
syllable in the language ends in a vowel, and two consonants never
5 appear together, so vowels have a much higher frequency in the
Hawaiian language than they do in English.
This musical-sounding language can be heard regularly by
56
visitors to the islands. Most Hawaiians speak English, but it is quite
common to hear English that is liberally spiced with words and
expressions from the traditional language of the culture. A visitor may
10 be greeted with the expression aloha and may be referred to as a
malihini because he is a newcomer to the island. The visitor may attend
an outside luau where everyone eats too much and be invited
afterwards to dance the hula.
1. Which of the following is 2. It is implied in the passage that

probably NOT a Hawaiian a luau is
word? A. a dance
A. mahalo B. a feast x
B. mahimahi C. a concert
C. meklea x D. a language
D. moana
IMPLIED DETAIL QUESTIONS
It is implied in the passage that...

HOW TO
It can be inferred from the passage that...
IDENTIFY THE
QUESTION It is most likely that...
What probably happened...?
WHERE TO
FIND The answers to these questions are generally found in
order in the passage.
THE ANSWER
HOW TO 2. Scan the passage for the key word (or a related idea).
ANSWER THE 3. Carefully read the sentence that contains the key
QUESTION word.
4. Look for an answer that could be true, according to
that sentence.
EXERCISE 6
57
Line Eskimos need efficient and adequate means to travel across water
in that the areas where they live are surrounded by oceans, bays, and
inlets and dotted with lakes and seas. Two different types of boats have
been developed by the Eskimos, each constructed to meet specific
5 needs.
The kayak is something like a canoe that has been covered by a

deck. A kayak is generally constructed with one opening in the deck
for one rider; however, some kayaks are made for two. Because the
deck of a kayak is covered over except for the hole (or holes) for its
10 rider (or riders), a kayak can tip over in the water and roll back up
without filling with water and sinking. One of the primary uses of the
kayak is for hunting.
The umiak is not closed over, as is the kayak. Instead, it is an

open boat that is built to hold ten to twelve passengers. Eskimos have
15 numerous uses for the umiak which reflect the size of the boat; e.g. the
umiak is used to haul belongings from campsite to campsite, and it is
used for hunting larger animals that are too big to be hunted in a kayak.
1. It is implied in the passage that if a kayak has two holes, then

A. it accommodates two ridersX
B. it is less stable than a kayak with one hole
C. it is as large as an umiak
D. it cannot be used on the ocean
2. It can be inferred from the passage that an example of the animals mentioned
might be
A. a kangaroo
B. a snake
C. a whaleX
D. a salmon
SKILL 7: ANSWER TRANSITION QUESTIONS CORRECTLY
58
You will sometimes be asked to answer a multiple-choice question
about what probably came before the reading passage (in the preceding
paragraph) or what probably comes after the reading passage. Of course, the
topic of the preceding or following paragraph is not directly stated, and you
must draw a conclusion to determine what is probably in these paragraphs.
This type of question is a transition question. It asks you to

demonstrate that you understand that good writing contains transitions from
one paragraph to the next. A paragraph may start out with the idea of the
previous paragraph as a way of linking the ideas in the two paragraphs. A
paragraph may also end with an idea that will be further developed in the
following paragraph.
Sample passage
Another myth of the oceans concerns Davy Jones, who in folklore is a

mean-spirited sovereign of the ocean's depths. The name 'Jones" is thought by
some etymologists to have been derived from the name 'Jonah," the Hebrew
prophet who spent three days in a whale's belly.
According to tradition, any object that goes overboard and sinks to the
bottom of the ocean is said to have gone to Davy Jones's locker, the ocean-
sized, mythical receptacle for anything that falls into the water. Needless to say,
any sailor on the seas is not so eager to take a tour of Davy Jones's locker,
although it might be a rather interesting trip considering all the treasures located
there.
1. The paragraph preceding this passage most probably discusses

A. the youth of Davy Jones
B. Davy Jones's career as a sailor
C. a different traditional story from the sea X
D. preparing to travel on the ocean
59
2. The topic of the paragraph following the passage most likely is
A. valuable items located at the bottom of the ocean X
B. where Davy Jones is found today
C. Jonah and the whale
D. preventing objects from falling overboard
TRANSITION QUESTIONS
HOW TO  The paragraph preceding the passage probably...

IDENTIFY THE  What is most likely in the paragraph following the
QUESTION passage?
WHERE TO - The answer can generally be found in the first line of the
FIND passage for a preceding question.
- The answer can generally be found in the last line for a
THE ANSWER
following question.
1. Read the first line for a preceding question.
HOW TO
ANSWER THE 2. Read the last line for a following question.
QUESTION
3. Draw a conclusion about what comes before or offer.
4. Choose the answer that is reflected in the first or last
EXERCISE 7
Another program instrumental in the popularization of science was

Cosmos. This series, broadcast on public television, dealt with topics
and issues from varied fields of science. The principal writer and
narrator of the program was Carl Sagan, a noted astronomer and
Pulitzer Prize-winning author.

A. a different scientific television series X
B. Carl Sagan's scientific achievements
C. the Pulitzer Prize won by Carl Sagan
D. public television
60
2. The paragraph following this passage most likely contains information on
what?
A. The popularity of science
B. The program Cosmos
C. The astronomer Carl Sagan X
D. Topics and issues from various fields of science
Line The Mason-Dixon Line is often considered by Americans to be the

demarcation between the North and the South. It is in reality the
boundary that separates the state of Pennsylvania from Maryland and
parts of West Virginia. Prior to the Civil War, this southern boundary of
5 Pennsylvania separated the nonslave states to the north from the slave
states to the south.
The Mason-Dixon Line was established well before the Civil War,
as a result of a boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Maryland.
Two English astronomers, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, were
10 called in to survey the area and officially mark the boundary between
the two states. The survey was completed in 1767, and the boundary
was marked with stones, many of which remain to this day.
1. The best title for this passage would be

A. Dividing the North and the South
B. The Meaning of the Mason-Dixon Line
C. Two English Astronomers
D. The History of the Mason-Dixon Line X
2. What does the word “it” in line 2 refer to?

A. The Mason-Dixon Line X
B. the North
61
C. Americans
D. the South
3. It can be inferred from the passage that before the Civil War
A. Pennsylvania was south of the Mason-Dixon Line
B. Pennsylvania was a nonslave state X
C. the states south of the Mason-Dixon Line had the same opinion about
slavery as Pennsylvania
D. the slave states were not divided from the nonslave states
4. The passage states all of the following about Mason and Dixon EXCEPT
that
A. they came from England
B. they worked as astronomers
C. they caused the boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Maryland
D. they surveyed the area of the boundary between Pennsylvania and
Maryland
5. The passage indicates that the Mason-Dixon Line was identified with
A. pieces of rock
B. fences
C. a stone wall
D. a border crossing
6. The second paragraph mainly discusses

A. the location of the Mason-Dixon Line
B. the boundary of Pennsylvania
C. why the Mason-Dixon Line was established
D. how the boundary was marked
7. The paragraph following the passage most probably discusses

A. where the Mason-Dixon Line is located
B. the Mason-Dixon Line today
C. the effect of the Civil War on slavery
D. what happened to Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon
62
VOCABULARY QUESTIONS
To answer a vocabulary question, it is, of course, helpful if you know the
meaning of the word that is being tested. However, it is not always necessary
for you to know the meaning of the word; often there are skills that you can
use to help you find the correct answer to the question: (1) finding definitions
from structural clues, (2) determining meanings from word parts, and (3)
using context clues to determine meanings.
SKILL 8: FIND DEFINITIONS FROM STRUCTURAL CLUES
Sample passage
Line One of the leading schools of psychological thought in the

twentieth century is behaviorism—the belief that the role of the
psychologist is to study behavior, which is observable, rather than
conscious or unconscious thought, which is not. Probably the best-
5 known proponent of behaviorism is B.F. Skinner, who is famous for
his research on how positive and negative reinforcement influence
behavior. He came to believe that positive reinforcement such as
praise, food, or money were more effective in promoting good
behavior than negative reinforcement, or punishment.
1. In "behaviorism" in line 2, a psychologist is concerned with

A. conscious thought patterns
B. unconscious thought patterns
C. observable actions
D. unobservable actions
2. The phrase “positive reinforcement” in line 5,6 might take the form of
A. a gift
B. a reward
C. a bribe
D. penalty
63
3. Which of the following is close in meaning to the phrase ‘negative
reinforcement’ in line 6?
A. good behavior B. praise C. punishment D. money
STRUCTURAL CLUES
HOW TO  What is the meaning of "X" in line Y?

IDENTIFY THE  The word "X" in line Y is closest in meaning to...
QUESTION
 The word "X" in line Y could best be replaced by...
TYPE OF punctuation: comma, parentheses, dashes

CLUES restatement: or, that is, in other words, i.e.
examples: such as, for example, e.g.
WHERE TO Information to help you determine what something means
FIND will generally be found after the punctuation clue, the
THE ANSWER restatement clue, or the example cue.
1. Find the word in the passage.
2. Locate any structural clues.

HOW TO
ANSWER THE 3. Read the part of the passage after the structural clue
QUESTION carefully.
4. Eliminate any definitely wrong answers and choose

the best answer from the remaining choices.
64
EXERCISE 8
Line The teddy bear is a child's toy, a nice soft stuffed animal suitable for
cuddling. It is, however, a toy with an interesting history behind it.
Theodore Roosevelt, or Teddy as he was commonly called,

was president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. He was an
5 unusually active man with varied pastimes, one of which was
hunting. One day the president was invited to take part in a bear hunt;
and inasmuch as Teddy was president, his hosts wanted to ensure that
he caught a bear. A bear was captured, clanked over the head to
knock it out, and tied to a tree; however, Teddy, who really wanted to
10 hunt a bear, refused to shoot the bear and, in fact, demanded that the
bear be extricated from the ropes; that is, he demanded that the bear
be set free.
The incident attracted a lot of attention among journalists. First

a cartoon—drawn by Clifford K Berryman to make fun of this
15 situation—appeared in the Washington Post, and the cartoon was
widely distributed and reprinted throughout the country. Then toy
manufacturers began producing a toy bear which they called a "teddy
bear." The teddy bear became the most widely recognized symbol of
Roosevelt's presidency
1. According to line 1 of the passage, what is a "teddy bear"?

A. A ferocious animal
B. The president of the United States
C. A famous hunter
D. A plaything
X
65
2. This word “pastimes” in line 5 could best be replaced by
A. past occurrences
B. previous jobs
C. hunting trips
D. leisure activities X
3. The word “extricated” in line 10 is closest in meaning to

A. demanded
B. set free X
C. refused
D. wanted
4. In line 14, a "cartoon" could best be described as

A. a newspaper
B. a type of teddy bear
C. a drawing with a message X
D. a newspaper article
SKILL 9: DETERMINE MEANINGS FROM WORD PARTS
When you are asked to determine the meaning of a long word that you do
not know in the reading section, it is sometimes possible to determine the
meaning of the word by studying the word parts.
Sample passage
Line Ring Lardner was born into a wealthy, educated, and cultured
family. For the bulk of his career, he worked as a reporter for
newspapers in South Bend, Boston, St. Louis, and Chicago. However,
it is for his short stories of lower middle-class Americans that Ring
5 Lardner is perhaps best known. In these stories, Lardner vividly creates
the language and the ambiance of this lower class, often using the
misspelled words, grammatical errors, and incorrect diction that
typified the language of the lower middle class.
66
1. The word ‘vividly’ in line 5 is closest in meaning to
A. in a cultured way
B. in a correct way
C. in a lifelike wayX
D. in a brief way
2. The word ‘misspelled’ in line 7 is closest in meaning to

A. highly improper
B. incorrectly writtenX
C. quite vulgar
D. extremely long
A SHORT LIST OF WORD PARTS

PART MEANIN EXAMPLE PART MEANING EXAMPLE
CONTR (against)
G contrast DIC (say) dictate
A
MAL (bad) malcontent DOMI (master) dominant
MIS (error) mistake N
JUD (judge) judgment
SUB (under) subway MOR (death) mortal
DEC (ten) decade SPEC (see) spectator
MULTI (many) multiple TERR (earth) territory
SOL (one) solo VER (turn) divert
TRI (three) triple VIV (live) revive
67
EXERCISE 9
Line Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo was a Portuguese-born explorer who is

credited with the exploration of the coast of what is today the state of
California. Sketchy military records from the period show that early in
his career he served with the Spanish army from 1520 to 1524 in Spain's
5 quest for subjugation of the people in what are today Cuba, Mexico, and
Guatemala. Little is known of his activities over the next decades, but
apparently he succeeded in rising up through the ranks of the military; in
1541, he was ordered by Antonio de Mendoza, the Spanish ruler of
Mexico, to explore the western coast of North America. Cabrillo set out
10 in June of 1542 in command of two ships, the San Salvador and the
Victoria; he reached San Diego Bay on September 28,1542, and claimed
the terrain for Spain. The peninsula where he landed is today named
Cabrillo Point in his honor; the area has been established as a national
monument and park, and local residents each year hold a celebration and
15 reenactment of Cabrillo's landing.
From San Diego, Cabrillo continued northward for further

exploration of the spectacular California coastline. By November 1542,
he had reached as far north as San Francisco Bay, although he missed the
entrance of the bay due to a huge storm. Soon after, with the approach of
20 winter, he veered south and turned back to Mexico. He made it as far
south as the Channel Islands off the coast of what is today Santa Barbara.
Cabrillo, who died on San Miguel Island in the Channel Islands, never
made it back to Mexico.
68
1. The word “subjugation” in line 5 C. minerals
is closest in meaning to D. prosperity
A. religion 4. The word “spectacular” in line
B. flag 17 is closest in meaning to which
C. controlX of the following?
D. agreement A. Ruggedly handsome
2. The word “decades” in line 6 is B. Visually exciting
closest in meaning to C. Completely uneven
A. months D. Unendingly boring
B. centuries 5. Which of the following could be
C. long epoch the best substitute for the word
D. ten-year periodsX “veered” in line 20?
3. In line 12, the word “terrain” is A. missed
closest in meaning to B. reached
A. landX C. turned X
B. population D. storm
Skill 10: USE CONTEXT TO DETERMINE MEANINGS OF

DIFFICULT WORDS
You may be asked to determine the meaning of a difficult word in a

reading passage, a word that you are not expected to know. In this case, the
passage will probably give you a clear indication of what the word means.
Sample passage
Line In a government election, the incumbent generally has a strong

advantage over a newcomer. A person who is already in office and thus
has a certain degree of prominence has a better chance of being elected
than does someone who is unknown to the electorate. History has
5 shown a strong proclivity in elections at all levels of government to
return the incumbent to office.
69
1. An “incumbent” in line 1 is most likely
A. a special type of election
B. a political party
C. a beneficial comment
D. a current office-holder
2. The word “prominence” in line 3 is closest in meaning to which of the

following?
A. fame
B. timelines
C. youthfulness
D. novelty
VOCABULARY QUESTIONS CONTAINING DIFFICULT WORDS

HOW TO  What is the meaning of "X" in line Y?
IDENTIFY THE
QUESTION  The word wXw line Y is closest in meaning to...
WHERE TO Information to help you understand the meaning of an

FIND THE unknown word can often be found in the context
ANSWER surrounding the unknown word.
HOW TO 2. Read the sentence that contains the word carefully.
ANSWER THE
3. Look for context clues to help you understand the
QUESTION
meaning.
4. Choose the answer that the context indicates.
70
EXERCISE 10
Line The black widow is the most dangerous spider living in the
United States. It is most common in the southern parts of the country,
but it can be found throughout the country. The black widow got its
name because the female has been known to kill the male after mating
5 and, as a result, becomes a widow.
The black widow is rather distinctive in appearance; it has a shiny

globular body, the size and shape of a pea, and is marked on its
underbelly with a red or yellow spot. The female is considerably more
ample than the male, roughly four times larger on the average.
10 If a human is bitten by a black widow, the spider's poison can

cause severe illness and pain. Black widow bites have occasionally
proved deadly, but it is certainly not the norm for black widow bites to
be mortal.
1. In line 3, the word ‘widow’ means

A. a type of poison
B. the dead male spider
C. the human victim of the spider
D. a female whose mate has diedX
2. The word ‘ample’ in line 8 indicates that the spider is

A. feminine
B. largeX
C. dotted with colors
D. normal
3. Which of the following has similar meaning to the word ‘deadly’ in line 11?
A. mortalX
B. occasionally
C. severe
D. certainly
71
Skill 11: USE CONTEXT TO DETERMINE MEANINGS OF SIMPLE
WORDS
You may be asked to determine the meaning of a simple word in a

reading passage, a word that you see often in everyday English. In this type of
question, you should not give the normal, everyday meaning of the word;
instead, a secondary meaning of the word is being tested, so you must
determine the meaning of the word in this situation.
Sample passage
Line Faced with serious threats to its future, the company is taking steps
to improve its outlook. The company has brought in a new crop of
trainees to staff some of its empty positions. In addition, the company
has created a new committee to research various proposals and has
5 appointed a key member of its management team to chair the committee.
1. The word "steps" in line 1 could best be replaced by

A. stairs
B. walks
C. actions
D. footprints
2. The word “crop” in line 2 probably means

A. produce
B. group
C. situation
D. plantation
72
VOCABULARY QUESTIONS CONTAINING SIMPLE WORDS
HOW TO  What is the meaning of ‘X’ in line Y? The word ‘X’ in
IDENTIFY THE
QUESTION line Y could best be replaced by...
WHERE TO FIND Information to help you understand the secondary

THE ANSWER meaning of a simple word can often be found in the
context surrounding the word.
HOW TO 2. Read the sentence that contains the word carefully.
ANSWER THE 3. Look for context clues to help you
QUESTION understand the meaning.

4. Choose the answer that the context
indicates.
EXERCISE 11
Line The ‘piece of eight’ was the nickname of the Spanish ‘peso,’
which was the rough equivalent of the American dollar in early
America; the peso was accepted coin in much of the Americas,
particularly during the period when the stores of Spanish ships were
5 regularly stripped by pirates on the waters off the Americas and
‘redistributed’ throughout coastal towns. The nickname ‘piece of eight’
derived from the fact that the peso was equal to eight ‘reals’ and
therefore had the numeral 8 stamped on it. The ‘piece of eight’ was
sometimes actually cut into pieces, or bits, and one popular size was
10 one-quarter of a ‘piece of eight,’ or two bits. As a consequence, the
U.S. quarter of a dollar is sometimes referred to today as two-bits,
particularly in the western part of the country. A visitor to that area, if
told ‘It'll be two-bits,’ should take it that the price of an item is being
73
given.
1. The word ‘rough’ in line 2 is

closest in meaning to
3. The expression ‘take it’ in line
A. unsmooth
B. mean 12 could best be replaced by
C. approximate A. hold
D. heavy B. understand
C. possess
2. The word ‘stores’ in line 4 are D. grab
probably means
A. departments
B. markets
C. shops
D. supplies

74
Line Bigfoot is a humanlike creature reportedly living in the Pacific
Northwest. Bigfoot sightings have been noted most often in the
mountainous areas of Northern California, Oregon, and Washington in
the United States. The creature has also been spotted numerous times in
5 British Columbia in Canada, where it is known as Sasquatch.
The creature described by witnesses is tall by human standards,

measuring 7 to 10 feet (2 to 3 meters) in height. It resembles an ape with
its thick, powerful, fur-covered arms and short, strong neck; however, its
manner of walking erect is more like that of Homo sapiens.
10 Although there have been hundreds of reported sightings of Bigfoot,

most experts have not seen enough evidence to be convinced of its
existence. The fact that some purported evidence has been proven fake
may have served to discredit other more credible information.
75
1. Which of the following best states the topic of the passage?
A. Differences between Bigfoot and Sasquatch
B. A description of Bigfoot
C. Where Bigfoot, or Sasquatch, can be found
D. The creature Bigfoot and its questionable existenceX
2. The word ‘noted’ in line 2 is closest in meaning to which of the following?

A. ReportedX
B. Written in a letter
C. Refuted
D. Discussed
3. It is implied in the passage that Bigfoot would probably NOT like to live
A. in Oregon
B. in the Pacific Northwest
C. on coastal plains
D. in mountainous areas
4. Which of the following is NOT true about the appearance of Bigfoot?

A. Its arms and neck look like those of an ape.
B. Its arms are covered with fur.
C. It is short-necked.
D. It walks like an ape.
5. What does the word “that” in line 9 refer to?

A. an ape
B. strong neck
C. manner of walking
D. fur-covered arms
6. The expression ‘Homo sapiens’ in line 9 is closest in meaning to

A. apes
76
B. creatures
C. humans
D. furry animals
7. According to the passage, how do experts feel about the evidence

concerning Bigfoot's existence?
A. They feel certain as to its existence.
B. They are not yet certain.
C. They are sure that it does not exist.
D. They feel that all the evidence is fake.
8. Which paragraph explains how knowledgeable people feel about the

existence of Bigfoot?
A. paragraph 1
B. paragraph 2
C. paragraph 3
D. None
OVERALL REVIEW QUESTIONS
Often in the reading section, the last question or two for a particular
reading passage are overall questions that ask about the passage as a whole
rather than one small detail. The most common type of overall review
questions are questions that ask where in the passage something is found,
questions about the tone of the passage, questions about the author's purpose in
writing the passage, questions about which course the passage might be a part
of, or questions about where a particular piece of information might be inserted
into the passage.
77
SKILL 12: DETERMINE WHERE SPECIFIC INFORMATION IS
FOUND.
Sometimes the final question accompanying a reading passage (or one

paragraph of a passage) will ask you to determine where in the passage a piece
of information is found. On the paper test, there will be a multiple-choice
question that asks where certain information is found. The answer choices will
list possible locations for that information.
Sample passage
Line Meteor Crater, a great crater approximately forty miles east of

Flagstaff, Arizona, is generally thought by scientists to have formed as
a result of the impact of a 60,000-ton meteor about 50,000 years ago.
The meteor, made of nickel and iron, disintegrated on impact and
5 spread half a billion tons of rock over the surface of the land. The
massiveness of the meteor can only be imagined from the mammoth
size of the crater, which measures a mile in diameter and three miles
around the top. The rim of the crater rises more than 150 feet above the
plain where the meteor impacted and is visible for more than ten miles
on a clear day.
1. Where in the passage does the 2. Where in the passage does the
author discuss the composition of author mention the distance from
the meteor? which the crater can be seen?
A. line 1-3 A. line 1-3
B. line 4-5 B. line 4-5
C. line 5-7 C. line 5-7
D. line 7-9 D. line 7-9
78
The following chart outlines the key information that you should remember
when you are trying to determine where in the passage something is found.
QUESTIONS ABOUT WHERE IN THE PASSAGE

HOW TO
IDENTIFY THE  Where in the passage...?
QUESTION
WHERE TO The answer can be in any of the lines listed in the
FIND THE answers to the question.
ANSWER 1. Choose a key word or idea in the question.
HOW TO
ANSWER THE 2. Skim the appropriate part(s) of the passage looking
QUESTION for the key word or idea.

3. Choose the answer that contains the key word or idea.
EXERCISE 12
Line Beavers generally live in family clusters consisting of six to ten

members. One cluster would probably consist of two adults, one male and
one female, and four to eight young beavers, or kits. A female beaver
gives birth each spring to two to four babies at a time. These baby
5 beavers live with their parents until they are two years old. In the
springtime of their second year they are forced out of the family group to
make room for the new babies. These two-year-old beavers then proceed
to start new family clusters of their own.
79
1. Where in the passage does the 3. Where in the passage does the
author give the name of a baby author indicate why the young
beaver? beavers must leave their parents'
A. Line 1 home?
B. Line 2-3 A. Line 1
C. Line 4 B. Line 2
D. Lines 5 C. Line 3
2. Where in the passage does the D. Line 4-6
author mention the time of year

when new baby beavers are born?
A. Line 1
B. Line 2
C. Line 3
D. Line 4-5
SKILL 13: DETERMINE THE TONE, PURPOSE, OR COURSE
Other types of review questions occur occasionally in the reading. Possible

questions of this type are multiple-choice questions that ask about (1) the tone
of the passage, (2) the author's purpose in writing the passage, and (3) the
course in which the passage might be used.
A question about the tone is asking if the author is showing any emotion in
his or her writing. The majority of the passages on the TOEFL test are factual
passages presented without any emotion; the tone of this type of passage could
be simply informational, explanatory, or factual. Sometimes the author shows
some emotion, and you must be able to recognize that emotion to answer a
question about tone correctly. If the author is funny, then the tone might be
humorous; if the author is making fun of something, the tone might be
sarcastic; if the author feels strongly that something is right or wrong, the tone
might be impassioned.
80
Sample passage
Line Military awards have long been considered symbolic of royalty, and
thus when the United States was a young nation just finished with
revolution and eager to distance itself from anything tasting of
monarchy, there was strong sentiment against military decoration. For a
5 century, from the end of the Revolutionary War until the Civil War, the
United States awarded no military honors. The institution of the Medal
of Honor in 1861 was a source of great discussion and concern. From the
Civil War until World War I, the Medal of Honor was the only military
award given by the United States government, and today it is awarded
10 only in the most extreme cases of heroism. Although the United States is
still somewhat wary of granting military awards, several awards have
been instituted since World War I.
1. The tone of this passage is

A. angered
B. humorous
C. outraged
D. informational X
2. The author's purpose in this passage is to

A. describe the history of military awards prior to the Civil War
B. demonstrate an effect of America's attitude toward royalty X
C. give an opinion of military awards
D. outline various historical symbols of royalty
3. This passage would probably be assigned reading in a course on

A. military science
B. psychology
C. American history X
D. interior decoration
81
QUESTIONS ABOUT TONE, PURPOSE, OR COURSE
 What is the tone of the passage?

- Emotional: happy, sad,
- Informative: objective, factual reporting, neutral
- Humorous: funny
- Descriptive: describing sth – a process, a place, a person
- Sarcastic (châm biếm): Making fun of sth.
- Complimentary: showing approval or praise
- Critical: disagreeing with sth
- Indifferent: disinterested, neutral
- Sympathetic: agreement with a point; showing
understanding
- Cautionary: giving a warning
- Persuasive: trying to change an attitude, an opinion, or a
behavior
- Explanatory: giving reasons and support for a point
HOW TO - Outraged (bất bình): angry
IDENTIFY - Concerned: worried; very interested; distressed
THE - Historical: giving chronological facts about the past
QUESTION  What is the author's purpose in this passage?
- To illustrate
- To contrast
- To persuade/ to convince
- To praise
- To warn
- To classify
- To advocate (biện hộ)
- To discredit (làm mất uy tín, nghi ngờ)
- To discuss
- To underscore (nhấn mạnh)
- To verify
- To support
 In which course would this reading be assigned?
- Marketing/ Statistics/ Mechanical engineering/
History/ Biography/ Chemistry/ Mineralogy (khoáng
vật học)
82
WHERE TO Look for clues throughout the passage that show
FIND THE Tone if the author is showing some emotion rather
ANSWER than just presenting facts.
Purpose Draw a conclusion about the purpose from the

main idea and supporting ideas.
Course Draw a conclusion about the course from the

topic of the passage and the supporting ideas.
1. Skim the passage looking for clues that the

HOW TO tone author is showing some emotion.
ANSWER 2. Choose the answer that identifies the emotion.
THE
QUESTION 1. Study the main idea in the topic sentence and
purpose
the details used to support the main idea.
2. Draw a conclusion about the purpose.
1. Study the main idea in the topic sentence and
course the details used to support the main idea.

2. Draw a conclusion about the course.
EXERCISE 13
Line Truman Capote's In Cold Blood (1966) is a well-known example of

the "nonfiction novel," a popular type of writing based upon factual
events in which the author attempts to describe the underlying forces,
thoughts, and emotions that lead to actual events. In Capote's book, the
5 author describes the sadistic murder of a family on a Kansas farm, often
showing the point of view of the killers. To research the book, Capote
interviewed the murderers, and he maintains that his book presents a
faithful reconstruction of the incident.
83
1. The purpose of this passage is to 2. Which of the following best
A. discuss an example of a describes the tone of the passage?
particular literary genre A. Cold
B. tell the story of In Cold Blood B. Sadistic
C. explain Truman Capote's C. Emotional
reasons for writing In Cold D. Descriptive
Blood 3. This passage would probably be

D. describe how Truman Capote assigned reading in which of the
researched his nonfiction novel following courses?
A. Criminal Law
B. American History
C. Modern American Novels
D. Literary Research
PASSAGE TWO (Questions 4-6)
Line Up to now, confessions that have been obtained from defendants in

a hypnotic state have not been admitted into evidence by courts in the
United States. Experts in the field of hypnosis have found that such
confessions are not completely reliable. Subjects in a hypnotic state may
5 confess to crimes they did not commit for one of two reasons. Either they
fantasize that they committed the crimes, or they believe that others want
them to confess.
A landmark case concerning a confession obtained under hypnosis
went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. In the case of Layra v.
Denno, a. suspect was hypnotized by a psychiatrist for the district
10 attorney; in a posthypnotic state the suspect signed three separate
confessions to a murder. The Supreme Court ruled that the confessions
were invalid because the confessions had been the only evidence against
him.
84
4. Which of the following best describes the author's purpose in this passage?
A. To explain the details of a specific court case
B. To demonstrate why confessions made under hypnosis are not reliable
C. To clarify the role of the Supreme Court in invalidating confessions from
hypnotized subjects
D. To explain the legal status of hypnotically induced confessions
5. The tone of this passage could best be described as

A. outraged
B. judicial
C. hypnotic
D. informative
6. This passage would probably be assigned reading in a course on

A. American law
B. psychiatric healing
C. parapsychology
D. philosophy

Line Another noteworthy trend in twentieth-century music in the United
States was the use of folk and popular music as a base for more serious
compositions. The motivation for these borrowings from traditional
music might be a desire on the part of a composer to return to simpler
5 forms, to enhance patriotic feelings, or to establish an immediate rapport
with an audience. For whatever reason, composers such as Aaron
Copland and Charles Ives offered compositions featuring novel musical
forms flavored with refrains from traditional Americana. Copland drew
upon folk music, particularly as sources for the music he wrote for the
10 ballets Billy the Kid, Rodeo, and Appalachian Spring. Ives employed the
whole gamut of patriotic songs, hymns, jazz, and popular songs in his
compositions
85
A. nineteenth-century music
B. one development in music in the last century X
C. the works of Aaron Copland
D. the history of folk and popular music
2. Which of the following best describes the main idea of the passage?
A. Traditional music flavored some American musical compositions in the
twentieth century.
B. Ives and Copland have used folk and popular music in their compositions.
C. A variety of explanations exist as to why a composer might use traditional
sources of music.
D. Traditional music is composed of various types of folk and popular music.
3. It can be inferred from this passage that the author is not sure
A. when Ives wrote his compositions
B. that Ives and Copland actually borrowed from traditional music
C. why certain composers borrowed from folk and popular music X
D. if Copland really featured new musical forms
4. The word “novel” in line 7 could be best replaced by

A. literary
B. new
C. cultural
D. bookish
5. What does the word “he” in line 9 refer to?

A. Copland
B. Ives
C. composers
D. music
86
6. Which of the following is NOT listed in the passage as a source for Ives's
compositions?
A. National music
B. Religious music
C. Jazz
D. American novels
7. Which of the following words in the passage could be best replaced by
“range”?
A. forms
B. gamut
C. music
D. sources
8. What sentence in the passage gives reasons composers might use traditional
melodies in their compositions?
A. sentence 1
B. sentence 2
C. sentence 3
D. sentence 4
9. Where in the passage does the author list examples of titles of Copland’s
works?
A. line 1-2
B. line 5-6
C. line 9-10
D. line 11
10.The passage would most probably be assigned reading in which of the
following courses?
A. American History
B. The History of Jazz
C. Modern American Music
D. Composition
87
REFERENCES
Phillips D. (2001). Complete course for the TOEFL test. Longman

Publishing House.
Seyler D. U. & Brizee A. (2019). Read, reason and write: An argument

text and reader – 12th Edition. Mc Graw Hill Education.
The Open University (2019). How to be a critical reader. From

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/english-language/how-be-critical-
reader/content-section-1.1
88

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CAN THO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

(Đọc phát triển kỹ năng phản biện)

For Internal Use Only

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION OF CRITICAL READING …………………. 1

1. What is Critical Reading? ……………………………………………… 1

2. Being a Critical Reader …………………………………………………. 18

3. Critical Reading Guidelines …………………………………………... 33

PART TWO: READING COMPREHENSION …………………………………. 37

Skill 1: Answer Main Idea Questions Correctly ……………………. 39

Skill 2: Regconize the Organization of Ideas ………………………… 43

Skill 4: Find Unstated Details ………………………………………………. 48

Skill 5: Find Pronoun Referents ………………………………………….. 50

Skill 8: Find Definitions from Structural Clues ……………………… 62

Skill 9: Determine Meanings from Word Parts …………………….. 65

Skill 12: Determine Where Specific Information is Found ……………….. 76

Skill 13: Determine the Tone, Purpose, or Course …………………………… 78

1. What is Critical Reading?

1. What are your thoughts or feelings about Extracts 1 and 2?

2. Do you believe, for example, that ‘Facebook is frying our brains’?

4. What would you like to say to either writer?

1.2 Two meanings of ‘critical’

Before you read, answer the following questions.

What do you think the expression ‘to make sweeping generalizations’

1. All women like fashion.

2. Drinking too much wine can be bad for your health.

3. Studying abroad can be quite challenging.

4. Children like sweets.

Mark: Sweeping generalizations about a whole generation are

A. angry B. reasonable C. very sympathetic to the author

A. angry B. reasonable C. very sympathetic to the author

The Accounting Cycle: Students Then and Now

January 2009 – Compared with the students in the 1970s, today’s

[3] Thirty years ago I required my Intermediate Accounting students to

[4] Today’s students cannot read at what used to be a tenth-grade level. I

The following paragraph summaries are in the wrong order. Match

e. Students today are uneducated and unsuitable for higher education.

Identify the main function of each of the paragraphs of Text 3. To do

A. state a claim B. gives supporting evidence C. qualifies the claim

A. state a claim B. gives supporting evidence C. qualifies the claim

Thirty years ago I required my Intermediate Accounting students to

A. state a claim B. gives supporting evidence C. qualifies the claim

Worst of all is attitude. Yesterday’s student was willing to work; today’s

A. state a claim B. gives supporting evidence C. qualifies the claim

1.4 Facts and opinions

1.4.1 Fact or opinion?

(a) ______ ‘Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade’

(b) ______ ‘Overweight people are lazy’.

A fact is something that everyone knows is true – there is no argument.

a. _____ Bats are nocturnal animals.

1.4.2 Fact or opinion?

January 2009 – Compared with the students in the 1970s, today’s

[4] Thirty years ago I required my Intermediate Accounting students to

Today’s students cannot read at what used to be a tenth-grade level. I

Worst of all is attitude. [6] Yesterday’s student was willing to work;

 may, could, can, seem, appear

Rewrite the following sentences, using hedging.

1. Today’s students cannot read critically.

2. Earlier students took responsibility for their mistakes.