REVIEWER IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

• Research Design- “Research design” refers to your approach for answering your
fundamental research questions. It is also a framework, or the set of methods and
procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular
research problem.
Types of Research Design (For quantitative study)
1. Descriptive Quantitative Design - also referred to as “observational studies” because
your role is strictly that of an observer.
2. Correlational Quantitative Research Design - seeks to understand the relationship
between the variables.
3. Quasi-Experimental Quantitative Research Design- the researcher attempts to
establish a cause-effect relationship from one variable to another. A quasi-
experimental study is not a true experimental study because it does not randomly
assign study participants to groups.
4. Experimental Quantitative Research Design- utilizes the scientific approach. It
establishes procedures that allow the researcher to test a hypothesis and to
systematically and scientifically study causal relationships among variables.
5. Comparative Research Design- Causal comparative research, or ex post facto
research, studies the reasons behind a change that has already occurred.

• Sampling Method- This is how you will select a sample that is representative of the
group as a whole.
• The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
• The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.
• Sample size refers to the number of participants or observations included in a study. This
number is usually represented by n.

Two primary types of Sampling Method:

1. Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
Types of Probability Sampling Method:
a. Simple random sampling- every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected.
b. Systematic sampling- similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular
intervals.
 c. Stratified sampling- involves dividing the population into subpopulations that
may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by
ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
d. Cluster sampling- involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

2. Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or

other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling Method:
a. Convenience sampling-simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.
b. Voluntary response sampling- Instead of the researcher choosing participants
and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves
c. Purposive sampling- also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.
d. Snowball sampling- can be used to recruit participants via other participants.
e. Quota sampling- relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined
number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.

• Data collection/Data Gathering is the process of collecting and measuring

information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that
enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate
outcomes.
Instruments for data gathering/data collection:
a. Interview- an interaction where verbal questions are posed by an interviewer
to elicit verbal responses from an interviewee.
b. Survey Questionnaire- a research instrument that consists of a set of
questions or other types of prompts that aims to collect information from a
respondent. A research questionnaire is typically a mix of close-ended
questions and open-ended questions.

c. Observation- is a type of correlational (non-experimental) method where

researchers observe ongoing behavior. Observations can be overt (everyone
knows they are being observed) or covert (no one knows they are being
observed and the observer is concealed).
GUIDELINES IN MAKING GOOD SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Ask more closed-ended questions instead than open-ended questions.
2. Keep the survey short, and use simple language.
3. Ensure your survey questions are neutral.
4. Keep a balanced set of answer choices
5. Don’t ask for two things at once
6. Keep your questions different from each other
7. Let some of your questions be optional to answer (if sensitive
question/confidential)

• Statistical Treatment- Statistical treatment of data is when you apply

some form of statistical method to a data set to transform it from a group
of meaningless numbers into meaningful output.
Types of Statistical Analysis:
1. Descriptive Statistical analysis- use to describe data and to
summarize it using table, charts, and graphs.
2. Inferential Statistical Analysis- use to study the relationship among
variables, and helps in making prediction, conclusion, and etc.
• Examples of Statistical tool:
a. Mean, Median, and Mode (Measure of Central Tendency)
b. range, Standard deviation, and Variance (Measure of
variability)
c. Frequency Distribution table/Percentage Distribution
Table
d. P-value- it is used to know whether the null hypothesis will
be rejected or not.
-If P-value is less than or equal the level of significance
(0.05), it means statistically significant in which the null
hypothesis (H0) should be rejected.
-if P-value is more than the level of significance (0.05), it
means statistically not significant in which the null hypothesis
should be accepted.

e. T-Test- use to evaluate whether a single group differs from

a known value (a one-sample t-test), whether two groups
differ from each other (an independent two-sample t-test), or
whether there is a significant difference in paired
measurements (a paired, or dependent samples t-test).
f. Regression- Regression allows researchers to predict or
explain the variation in one variable based on another
variable.
 g. Multiple Correlation- study of combined influence of two or
more variables on a single variable.
h. Correlation Coefficient - assess the strength and direction
of the linear relationships between pairs of variables. When
both variables are normally distributed use Pearson's
correlation coefficient, otherwise use Spearman's correlation
coefficient.
i. Analysis of Variance- analyze the differences between the
means of two or more groups or treatments. It is often used
to determine whether there are any statistically significant
differences between the means of different groups.

• Presentation of Data
Ways to present data:
1. Textual form- Transforming data in figure into sentence/paragraph.
2. Tabular form- using table like Frequency distribution table, and Percentage
distribution table
3. Graphical form- line graph, bar graph, pie graph, histogram, and etc.

• Interpretation and Analysis of Data- Based on the given data, researchers need to
thoroughly look on what the data says. Aside from that, supporting our reasons
with studies/literature.
• Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendation
-In making a summary, the researchers need to look on the important details in
Chapter IV then summarize it.
-In making a conclusion, the researchers need to consider what has been written
in summary. It should be direct to the point, yet strong enough to conclude the
research findings. We can also use transition signal like “In conclusion”, “To
conclude”, and “Therefore”.
Inference - Inference may be defined as the process of drawing
conclusions based on evidence and reasoning.
- In making the recommendation, the researchers need to consider the
Statement of the problems to produce given solutions, relevant enough for the
issues provided in the study.
-The number of Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendation should be the same
depending on the number of the statement of the problem.