Q1.

(1) What is the application of timer circuit?

Ans: A timer circuit is a fundamental component used in various applications across multiple domains, including
electronics, automotive systems, industrial automation, and consumer electronics. Here are some common
applications of timer circuits:
1. Time Delay Circuits 2. Pulse Generation 3. Oscillator Circuits 4. Sequential Timing 5. Counters 6. Flashing and
Blinking Lights 7. Timers and Alarm Clocks 8. Automatic Lighting Systems 9. Programmable Timers 10. Delay Off/On
Timer
(2) Explain over voltage protection of SCR?
Ans: To protect the SCR against the transient over voltages, a parallel R-C snubber network is provided for each SCR in
a converter circuit. This snubber network protects the SCR against internal over voltages that are caused during the
reverse recovery process. After the SCR is turned OFF or commutated, the reverse recover current is diverted to the
snubber circuit which consists of energy storing elements.
The lightning and switching surges at the input side may damage the converter or the transformer. And the effect of
these voltages is minimised by using voltage clamping devices across the SCR. Therefore, voltage clamping devices
like metal oxide varistors, selenium thyrector diodes and avalanche diode suppressors are most commonly employed.

(3) What do you understand by step up chopper?

Ans: A step-up chopper, also known as a boost converter or a voltage amplifier, is a type of DC-DC converter used to
increase the voltage level of a direct current (DC) power supply. It operates on the principle of energy storage and
transfer through inductors and capacitors. The primary function of a step-up chopper is to boost a lower DC voltage
to a higher level, making it valuable in applications such as power supplies, renewable energy systems and electrical
vehicles.

(4) Write any two applications of an Inverter?

Ans: An inverter is an electronic device that converts direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC). Inverters are
widely used in various applications due to their ability to provide AC power from DC sources.
(1) Solar power system. (2) Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
(5) What is the ripple factor of a rectifier?
Ans:The ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the RMS value of an alternating current component in the rectified
output to the average value of rectified output. The ripple factor is denoted as γ. It is a dimensionless quantity and
always has a value less than unity.

Q2. (i) Explain the working of relaxation oscillator using UJT?

Ans: A three-terminal semiconductor device like UJT (uni-junction transistor) exhibits different characteristics like
switching and negative resistance to using as a relaxation oscillator within phase control applications. This type of
transistor can also be used in timing, trigger generator, and gate pulse applications. Similar to diodes, the
construction of UJT can be done by using separate P-type & N-type semiconductor materials to form a single PN
junction in the main N-type conducting channel of the device. As compared to FETs & BJTs, the switching
characteristic of this transistor is different. So it cannot be used for amplifying a signal but it can be used as a
switching transistor to ON/OFF. This article discusses an overview of the UJT relaxation oscillator, circuit, and its
working.
Generally, a relaxation oscillator is a non-linear oscillator and the main function of this is to produce non-sinusoidal
output waveforms like a square wave, triangular wave which triggers power control devices like TRIACs and SCRs.

Here the charging and discharging of this capacitor can be done through the resistors like R1 & R2 where the R1
resistor charges the capacitor and the R2 resistor discharges the capacitor. Here, VBB in the circuit is an external
voltage supply.

Let us discuss how a UJT relaxation oscillator generates a non-sinusoidal output signal. Once the external voltage like
VBB is given to the circuit, the capacitor connected to the circuit will start charging through the R1 resistor. Once the
capacitor gets charged then the voltage across the capacitor will be increased till a peak voltage is attained which is
indicated with ‘Vp’.
(ii) Explain single phase full wave bridge-controlled rectifier with resistive load?
Ans: The controlled rectifier circuit uses 4 SCR as shown in the figure. During each half-cycle, only two SCRs
conducted at a time. SCR1 and SCR2 have the same control pulse signal, and SCR3 and SCR4 will have the same
control signal.

Positive cycle: Vin > 0, SCR1 and SCR2 are forward-biased, so when there is a control pulse G1,2, they will conduct.
Whereas SCR3 and SCR4 are reverse biased, they act as an open switch, not allowing current to pass through it.

Negative cycle: Vin < 0, SCR3 and SCR4 are forward-biased, so when there are G3, G4 pulses, they will conduct. SCR 3
and SCR4 act as a close switch. SCR1 and SCR2 are reverse biased and they act as a switch in the open state.
Q3. (i) Explain the working of an A.C. operated timer using SCR?

Ans:
(ii) Explain the working of an electronic stabilizer with the help of diagram?
Ans: As the name suggests, a voltage stabilizer stabilizes or regulates the voltage if the supply voltage varies or
fluctuates over a given range.
It is an electrical appliance that feeds constant voltage to a load during over and under voltage conditions. This
device detects these voltage conditions and correspondingly brings the voltage to desired range.

It consists of auto transformer/ transformer, rectifier unit, comparators, switching circuit and relays.
Need of Voltage Stabilizers-
Voltage fluctuations are nothing but the change in magnitude of voltage, of which normally exceeding or below the
steady state voltage range prescribed by some standards.
In some countries, electric power distribution is 230 volts for single phase and 415 volts for three-phase. In such
case, all electrical appliances (especially, single phase) designed to operate in the voltage range of 220 to 240V.The
acceptable range of voltage in some countries (also in India) is 220 ± 10V as per the electricity standards. And also,
many appliances can withstand this voltage fluctuation range.

But in most places, voltage fluctuations are quite common and typically, they are in the range of 170 to 270V. These
voltage fluctuations can be significant in adverse effects on appliances.

 In case of lighting equipment, low voltage drop reduces the lumen output (illumination) that will further
reduce the life of the lamp.
 AC motor produces less torque and hence the speed under low voltage, and they produce more speed than
desired during overvoltage. This degrades motor life and also causes insulation damage under high voltages.
 In case of induction heating, low voltage reduces heat output which causes the load to operate at
inappropriate temperatures than desired.
 In TV and radio transmission, voltage drop will reduce the quality of transmission and also cause the
malfunction of other electronic components.
 Refrigerators are AC motor driven appliances that draw large currents during voltage drop conditions which
may lead to overheating of windings.

Basic Principle of Operation of Voltage Stabilizer

The voltage regulation is required for two distinct purposes; over voltage and under voltage conditions. The process
of increasing voltage from under voltage condition is called as boost operation, whereas reducing the voltage from
overvoltage condition is called as buck operations.

These two main operations are essential in each and every voltage stabilizer.

As discussed above, the components of voltage stabilizer include a transformer, relays, and electronic circuitry. If the
stabilizer senses the voltage drop in incoming voltage, it enables the electromagnetic relay so as to add more voltage
from transformer so that the loss of voltage will be compensated.

When the incoming voltage is more than normal value, stabilizer activates another electromagnetic relay such that it
deducts the voltage to maintain the normal value of voltage.

(1) Boost Operation-

The principle of boost operation of a voltage stabilizer is shown in figure below.
Here, the supply voltage is given to a transformer, which is normally a step-down transformer. This transformer is
connected in such a way that the secondary output is added to the primary supply voltage.

In case of low voltage condition, the electronic circuit in the stabilizer switches corresponding relay such that this
added supply (incoming supply + transformer secondary output) is applied to the load.

(2) Buck Operation-

The principle of buck operation of a voltage stabilizer is illustrated in figure below.

In buck operation, the secondary of step-down transformer is connected in such a way that secondary output voltage
is deducted from incoming voltage.Therefore, in case of incoming voltage rise, the electronic circuit switches the
relay that switches deducted supply voltage (i.e., incoming voltage –transformer secondary voltage) to the load
circuit.In case of normal voltage operating condition, electronic circuit switches the load entirely to incoming supply
without any transformer voltage.

These buck, boost and normal operations are same for all stabilizers whether they are normal type or servo
mechanism type stabilizers. In addition to these two main operations, voltage stabilizer also performs lower and
higher voltage cut off operations.

Q4. (i) Explain the series and parallel connection of SCR?

Ans: Series Connection of SCR: Connecting SCRs in series is used to handle higher voltage demands, but requires
resistors and capacitors for equal voltage division.For series connection of SCR, the requirement is that all the SCRs
should have identical V-I characteristics. This is required to get uniform voltage distribution across the individual SCR
units in the string.
Parallel Connection: SCRs are connected in parallel to meet higher current demands, with equal temperature
maintenance crucial to avoid thermal run away.Following are the necessary conditions for satisfactory parallel
connection of SCR and its operation-

 V-I characteristics of SCRs should be identical

 Dynamic characteristics i.e. turn-on and turn-off time should be equal for all the SCRs as far as possible.
 All SCRs should be mounted on the same heat sink so that they operate at the same temperature.
 SCRs should be mounted symmetrically on the heat sink.

(ii) Explain the phase control of SCR using UJT pedestal and ramp method.
Ans:Phase Control of SCR means having control on the phase relationship between the start of current through the
SCR and source voltage.Figure 1 shows the circuit for ramp-and-pedestal triggering of two thyristors connected in
anti-parallel for controlling power in an ac load. Ramp and pedestal triggering is an improved version of Synchronized
UJT Oscillator triggering. The various voltage-waveforms are shown in Fig.2.
Zener-diode voltage, Vz, is constant at its threshold-voltage. Rp acts as a potential divider. Wiper of RP controls the
value of pedestal voltage Vp. Diode D allows C to be quickly charged to Vp through the low-resistance of the upper
portion of Rp. The setting of wiper on Rp is such that, this value of Vp is always less than the UJT firing point
voltage ηVz. When wiper setting is such that VP is small voltage Vz charges C through R. When this ramp
voltage VC reaches ηVz , UJT fires and voltage VT, through the pulse transformer, is transmitted to the gate circuits of
both thyristors T1 and T2 .

During first positive half-cycle, SCR T1 is forward biased and is therefore, turned-on. After this, Vc reduces to VP and
then to zero at ωt=π. As Vc is more than VP during the charging of capacitor C through charging resistor R , diode D is
reverse-biased. Thus, VP does not effect in anyway the discharge of C through UJT emitter and primary of pulse
transformer. From period 0 to π, SCR T1 is forward biased and is turned- on. From π to 2π ; T2 is turned-on. In this
manner, load is subjected to alternating eL as shown in fig.2. With the setting of wiper on RP pedestal
voltage VP on C can be adjusted.

Q5. (i) What do you mean by cyclo converter? Explain single phase mid-point step down cyclo converter with
diagram.

Ans:A cycloconverter is a type of power electronic converter that directly converts an AC voltage of one frequency to
an AC voltage of another frequency without an intermediate DC stage. It achieves this by controlling the firing angles
of thyristors or other switching devices to generate the desired output frequency and voltage.

Step-down Cycloconverter: Step-down cycloconverter is a device which steps down the fixed frequency power
supply input into some lower frequency. It is a frequency changer. If fs & fo are the supply and output frequency,
then fo < fsfor this cycloconverter.The most important feature of step-down cycloconverter is that it does not require
force commutation. Line or Natural Commutation is used which is provided by the input AC supply.
Circuit diagram:Figure below shows the circuit diagram of mid-point type cycloconverter. The positive direction of
voltage and current are marked in the diagram.

Working:The working principle of step-down cycloconverter is explained for discontinuous and continuous load
current. The load is assumed to be comprised of resistance (R) & inductance (L).

Discontinuous Load Current:

For positive cycle of input AC supply, the terminal A is positive with respect to point O. This makes SCRs P1 forward
biased. The forward biased SCR P1 is triggered at ωt = 0. With this, load current io starts building up in the positive
direction from A to O. Load current io becomes zero at ωt = β>π but less than (π+α).The thyristor P1 is thus, naturally
commutated at ωt = β which is already reversed biased after π.

Continuous Load Current:

When “a” is positive with respect to O in figure-1, P1 is triggered at ωt = α, positive output voltage appears across
load and load current starts building up as shown in figure-3. At ωt = π, supply and load voltages are zero. After ωt =
π, P1 is reversed biased. As load current is continuous, P1 is not turned OFF at ωt = π. When P2 is triggered in
sequence at (π+α), a reverse voltage appears across P1, it is therefore turned OFF by natural commutation.

(ii) Explain the working of SMPS with block diagram.

Ans: A switching regulator is included in an electronic power supply called a switched-mode power supply (SMPS) to
facilitate effective electrical power conversion. An SMPS converts voltage and current while transferring power to DC
loads via a DC or AC source, just like other suppliers.
Working Principle of SMPS:
Switching regulators are employed in SMPS devices to maintain & regulate the output voltage by turning on or off
the load current. The mean value between on and off is the appropriate power output for a system. The SMPS
reduces depletion strength because, in contrast to the linear power supply, it carries transistor switches between low
dissipation, full-on as well as full-off phases and spends significantly fewer seconds in high dissipation cycles.

 In the initial stage, a rectifier and filter are used to process the AC power that comes in into DC.
 Because the SMPS operates at high frequencies, the DC signal is processed by a high-frequency switch to
produce a medium-frequency pulsating DC signal.
 A power transformer reduces the high-voltage DC output to the proper level of DC signal.
 Reversing and filtering the stepped-down DC signal results in a constant steady DV output.
 To guarantee a constant output stream of the intended voltage, the control circuitry continuously
monitors the generated voltage and modifies the high-frequency switch.
Q6. (i) Explain the ‘C’ type chopper with circuit and waveforms.

Ans: Class-C or Type-C Chopper is a category of chopper which can operate in first as well as second quadrant. This
basically means that, the power can either flow from source to load or load to source in this chopper. This kind of
chopper is also known as Two Quadrant Class-A chopper.
Operation: Type-C chopper is obtained by the parallel connection of Class-A and Class-B chopper. Figure below shows
the circuit diagram of this type of chopper.
Chopper CH1, free-wheeling diode (FD) and load are forming Class-A Chopper whereas chopper CH2, D2 and Load
are forming Class-B chopper. Both these choppers are connected in parallel. To obtain first quadrant operation we
should switch ON chopper CH1 and for getting second quadrant operation we should switch ON chopper CH2.

Case-1: When CH1 is switched ON / OFF

When chopper CH1 is switched ON, source Vs directly gets connected to the load and hence, load voltage Vo is equal
to source voltage. The direction of load current is from source to load as shown in the circuit diagram which is
assumed positive.
When CH1 is switched OFF, the free-wheeling diode FD comes into the circuit as it gets forward biased and hence
shorts the load. Therefore, the output voltage Vo becomes zero. However, the io continues to die down through the
FD and L in the same direction as shown in circuit diagram. Thus, the average output voltage Vo and current Io are
positive and hence operation of chopper is in first quadrant. In fact, this is the Class-B mode of operation.

Case-2: When CH2 is switched ON / OFF

When chopper CH2 is switched ON, load DC source E drives current through CH2 and load. The direction of this
current io will be opposite to that shown in circuit diagram and hence is assumed negative. Output voltage Vo is zero
during this time. When CH2 is made OFF, diode D2 gets forward biased and hence the current into the source from
the load. The output voltage is Vs in this time as the load is connected to the source through D2 during OFF time of
chopper CH2. Thus, the load current is always negative i.e. operation of chopper is within second quadrant. In fact,
this is the Class-B mode of operation.
Conclusion:

 The output voltage Vo is zero when chopper CH2 is ON or free-wheeling diode FD conducts.
 The output voltage Vo is equal to source voltage Vs when chopper CH1 is ON or diode D2 conducts.
 The load current flows in the direction shown in circuit diagram i.e.io is positive when CH1 is ON or FD
conducts.
 The load current flows opposite to the direction shown in circuit diagram i.e.io is negative when CH2 is ON or
D2 conducts.
(ii) Explain the speed control of D.C. shunt motor using armature supply.

Ans:It is the process of adjusting a motor’s speed to meet specific operational demands.The set up for speed control
of DC shunt motor by armature voltage control method is shown in the figure. A rheostat is connected in series with
armature winding. By varying the value of R we can vary the voltage across the armature.

Because speed N is directly proportional to armature voltage, it is possible to change the speed by changing the value
of rheostat R.We can use this technique to control motor speed below its rated value. But it is neither efficient nor
economical method because, in this method, speed is reduced at the cost of power loss in rheostat (I a2R).

In this method, the field winding of the motor is connected to a constant DC voltage. But armature is supplied with
different voltages with the help of suitable switch gear as shown in the figure.

Q7. (i) With the help of neat circuit diagram, explain transistor D.C. timer.
Ans:
(ii) Explain the two-transistor analogy of SCR.
Ans: The two transistor analogy or two transistor model of SCR expresses the easiest way to understand the working
of SCR by visualizing it as a combination of two transistors. The collector of each transistor is connected to the base
of the other transistor.

The two transistor analogy or two transistor model of SCR expresses the easiest way to understand the working of
SCR by visualizing it as a combination of two transistors as shown in figure. The collector of each transistor is
connected to the base of the other transistor.

Assume that load resistance is connected between the anode and cathode terminals and a small voltage is applied at
the gate and cathode terminals. When there is no gate voltage, the transistor 2 is in cut-off mode due to zero base
current. Therefore, no current flows through the collector and hence the base of transistor T1. Hence, both
transistors are open circuited and thereby no current flows through the load. And hence the base current at the
transistor T1 drives the transistor into saturation mode.

The basic operating principle of an SCR can be understood using the two transistor model of SCR, which combines p
and n layers. The relation between the collector current and emitter current is shown below.
Q8. Write short notes on any two of the followings:
(i) Electro-mechanical stabilizer
Ans: The electromechanical voltage stabilizers protect the loads that are connected to them, from the continuous
voltage fluctuations of the power supply network. The design of electromechanical voltage stabilizers makes them
suitable for operation in any kind of installation from home to industrial applications.

The electromechanical voltage stabilizer has a variable autotransformer (Variac) and a control circuit. When there is a
deviation of the voltage from the desired value of the output voltage, a command is issued for the correction by the
variable the autotransformer (Variac).

(ii) Single phase voltage source inverter

Ans: Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is a type of inverter circuits that converts a dc input voltage into its ac equivalent
at the output. It is also known as a voltage-fed inverter (VFI), the dc source at the input of which has small or
negligible impedance.

In a VSI, battery banks are considered to be the simplest form of dc voltage source which is a combination of multiple
cells in series and parallel combinations. However, sometimes photovoltaic cells are also used as a dc source of
supply. Sometimes, the primary source to the circuit can be an ac supply source so, in that case, first, the ac signal
must be converted into dc, and then the dc signal will be given to the inverter to get the ac equivalent of dc voltage.
An inverter in the field of power electronics is basically power conversion circuits that are defined as the circuits that
change dc power into ac equivalent of desired voltage as well as frequency.

(iii) Servo stabilizer:

Ans: A Servo Stabilizer is a Servo motor controlled stabilization system that performs optimum voltage supply using a
Buck\Boost transformer booster that captures voltage fluctuations from input and regulates current to the correct
output. An AC synchronous motor adjusts voltage in clockwise or anticlockwise direction and manages the output
voltage with components like control card,dimmer,comparator, transistors, mocs, etc.

There are seven main components in a servo voltage stabilizer:-

1. Dimmer (Variable Transformer)
2. Carbon Brush
3. Servomotor – Synchronizing Motors
4. Buck Boost Transformer (Series Transformer)
5. Contactor or Relay
6. MCB, MCCB
7. Electronic Circuit