OUTLINES

Synapses and Cells of the Nervous System

Neurons

 Neurons are responsible for transmitting information in the nervous system

through electrical impulses and chemical signals.

 A typical neuron consists of three main parts: Cell Body (Soma), Dendrites, and
Axon.

 The Cell Body contains the nucleus and organelles, Dendrites receive signals
from other neurons, and the Axon transmits signals away from the cell body.

 Neurons can be classified based on function (sensory, motor, interneurons) or

structure (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar).

 The myelin sheath covering the axon speeds up signal transmission.

Glia (Glial Cells)

 Glial cells support and protect neurons, essential for overall nervous system
health and function.

 Types of Glial Cells include Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells,

Microglia, and Ependymal Cells.

 Astrocytes provide structural support, regulate the blood-brain barrier, and

maintain the chemical environment for neurons.

 Oligodendrocytes and Schwann Cells produce the myelin sheath for insulation
and faster signal transmission.

 Microglia act as the brain's immune cells, removing waste and protecting against
pathogens.

Santiago Ramón y Cajal's Discoveries

 Cajal demonstrated that the nervous system is made up of individual cells

(neurons) connected by synapses.

 He showed that the cell body, axon, and dendrites are part of an individual nerve
cell.

 Neurons communicate through small contact zones called synapses.

 The idea of individual cells in the brain was doubted until the early 1900s.

 Cajal's work revolutionized the understanding of the nervous system structure.

Types of Neurons and Brain Structure

Structure of a Neuron
  Motor neurons receive excitation in the soma and conduct impulses along the
axon to muscles.

 Sensory neurons are highly sensitive to specific types of stimulation.

 Dendrites receive information from other neurons through synaptic receptors.

 The cell body (soma) contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria, where
most metabolic work occurs.

 Axons convey impulses away from the cell body towards other neurons, organs,
or muscles.

Neuronal Terms and Functions

 Afferent axons bring information into a structure, while efferent axons carry
information away from a structure.

 Intrinsic neurons (interneurons) have dendrites and axon contained within a

single structure.

 Every sensory neuron is afferent to the nervous system, and every motor neuron
is efferent.

 Neurons play crucial roles in transmitting sensory and motor information within
the nervous system.

 The blood-brain barrier is essential for protecting the brain's sensitive

environment.

The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

Protection from Harmful Substances

 The BBB acts as a defensive shield, preventing toxins, bacteria, and viruses from
entering the brain tissue, which is vulnerable to damage due to limited neuron
regeneration.

 It restricts the passage of blood-borne chemicals that could disrupt brain function,
ensuring the brain's chemical stability.
Element Description
Toxins Prevents harmful substances from entering
and
Pathogens
Blood- Restricts disruptive chemicals from entry
Borne
Chemicals

Regulation of the Brain's Microenvironment

 The BBB tightly regulates the passage of ions, nutrients, and substances to
maintain stability for optimal nerve signal transmission.

 It allows essential nutrients like glucose and amino acids to enter the brain while
blocking harmful substances.
 Element Description
Homeostasis Maintains stable environment for neurons
Nutrient Controls nutrient entry for brain function
Supply

Prevention of Neurotoxicity

 The BBB prevents blood-borne neurotoxins from entering the brain, safeguarding
neurons from damage.

 It regulates the entry of immune cells and antibodies to prevent excessive

inflammation that could harm neural tissue.
Element Description
Neurotoxins Blocks toxic substances from brain entry
Immune Regulates immune response in the brain
Modulation

Isolation of Neurotransmitter Systems

 The BBB separates peripheral neurotransmitters like adrenaline from affecting

brain function, ensuring precise regulation of neurotransmitter signaling within the
brain.
Element Description
Neurotransmitters Prevents peripheral impact on brain function

Facilitation of Brain Function and Cognitive Processes

 The BBB protects neurons from exposure to blood composition fluctuations,

preserving cognitive processes like memory and decision-making.
Element Description
Neuronal Protects neurons from environmental changes
Sensitivity

Nourishment of Vertebrate Neurons

Glucose Dependence and Active Transport

 Vertebrate neurons primarily depend on glucose for nutrition.

 Active transport mechanisms pump essential chemicals like glucose, amino

acids, and vitamins from the blood into the brain.
Element Description
Glucose Main fuel for brain function
Active Protein-mediated process for chemical entry
Transport

The Nerve Impulse Transmission

Overview of Nerve Impulse
  A nerve impulse, or action potential, is an electrical signal that travels along a
neuron's axon, enabling communication between neurons and other cells.

 Neurons are covered by a membrane composed of phospholipid molecules and

protein channels for chemical passage.
Element Description
Nerve Electrical signal for neuron communication
Impulse
Membrane Composed of phospholipids and proteins
Structure

Resting Membrane Potential

 At rest, a neuron maintains a negative electrical charge inside its membrane

compared to the outside, known as polarization or resting potential.

 The resting potential ensures neuronal sensitivity and proper functioning.

Element Description
Polarization Maintains electrical charge difference
Resting Voltage difference for neuron stability
Potential

Resting Membrane Potential and Ion Distribution

Resting Membrane Potential

 The resting membrane potential is the difference in charge maintained by the

distribution of ions across the neuron's membrane.

 Sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) ions play a crucial role, with more Na⁺ ions
outside the cell and more K⁺ ions inside.

 The sodium-potassium pump actively transports 3 Na⁺ ions out and 2 K⁺ ions into
the neuron, using ATP for energy.

 This action helps maintain concentration gradients of Na⁺ and K⁺, contributing to
the negative charge inside the cell.

 The resting membrane potential is essential for the neuron's readiness to

generate an action potential.

Ion Distribution

 Sodium-potassium pump maintains the distribution of Na⁺ and K⁺ ions.

 More Na⁺ ions are found outside the cell, while more K⁺ ions are inside.

 This distribution creates concentration gradients that are crucial for neuronal
function.

 The negative charge inside the cell is partly due to this ion distribution.
  Disruption of ion distribution can impact the neuron's ability to generate and
propagate action potentials.

Generation and Propagation of Action Potential

Action Potential Generation

 Depolarization occurs when a neuron is stimulated, leading to the opening of

voltage-gated Na⁺ channels.

 Influx of Na⁺ ions causes depolarization, reducing the membrane potential.

 If depolarization reaches the threshold (around -55 mV), an action potential is

triggered.

 Rapid depolarization involves more Na⁺ influx, raising the membrane potential to
around +30 to +40 mV.

 Generation of action potential is a critical step in neuronal communication.

Propagation of Action Potential

 Action potential follows the all-or-none principle, propagating fully once the
threshold is reached.

 Local current flow depolarizes adjacent membrane sections, triggering action

potentials sequentially.

 This propagation ensures the efficient transmission of nerve impulses along the
axon.

 Understanding the propagation process is essential for grasping neuronal

communication mechanisms.

 Propagation speed and efficiency are influenced by factors like myelination and
axon diameter.

Repolarization and Return to Resting State

Repolarization Process

 After the peak of the action potential, Na⁺ channels close, and K⁺ channels open.

 Efflux of K⁺ ions leads to repolarization, restoring the membrane potential to a

negative value.

 Hyperpolarization may occur when K⁺ channels close slowly, causing the

potential to become more negative than the resting state.

 Repolarization is crucial for resetting the neuron for subsequent action potentials.

 The balance of ion distribution is restored during repolarization, preparing the

neuron for future signaling.

Return to Resting State

  Ion balance is restored post-action potential through the activity of the sodium-
potassium pump and other ion channels.

 Neuronal refractory period follows, during which the neuron is temporarily unable
to generate another action potential.

 The refractory period consists of absolute and relative phases, regulating the
neuron's responsiveness to stimuli.

 Understanding the refractory period is essential for comprehending the timing

and limitations of neuronal signaling.

 Maintenance of resting membrane potential is crucial for neuronal excitability and

signal transmission.

Saltatory Conduction and Synaptic Transmission

Saltatory Conduction

 Myelinated neurons feature a myelin sheath that speeds up nerve impulse

conduction.

 Nodes of Ranvier, gaps in the myelin sheath, facilitate saltatory conduction by

allowing action potentials to jump between nodes.

 Saltatory conduction is faster and more energy-efficient than continuous

conduction in unmyelinated axons.

 Understanding saltatory conduction is essential for appreciating the efficiency of

signal transmission in the nervous system.

 Myelination plays a crucial role in enhancing the speed and reliability of neuronal
communication.

Synaptic Transmission

 Synapses are junctions where neurons communicate with other neurons or target
cells like muscles or glands.

 Chemical synapses involve neurotransmitters like acetylcholine released into the

synaptic cleft to transmit signals.

 Electrical synapses, via gap junctions, allow direct transfer of nerve impulses
using ions and metabolites.

 Synaptic strength can be excitatory or inhibitory, influencing the likelihood of

post-synaptic neuron firing.

 Understanding synaptic transmission is crucial for comprehending how

information is processed and relayed in the nervous system.

Neuronal Synapses
Location of Synapses
  Synapses are found in specialized locations such as the heart, smooth muscle,
pulp of the tooth, and retina of the eye.

 These locations highlight the diverse functions of synapses in different

physiological systems.

Synaptic Strength

 Excitatory Synapses increase the likelihood of the post-synaptic neuron firing an

action potential, e.g., glutamate as a neurotransmitter.

 Inhibitory Synapses decrease the likelihood of the post-synaptic neuron firing,

e.g., GABA as a neurotransmitter.

 Excitatory synapses act as a 'go' signal, making it more likely for the next neuron
to send a message forward.

 Inhibitory synapses act as a 'stop' signal, making it less likely for the next neuron
to send a message.

 Understanding the properties of synapses is crucial in comprehending neural

communication and signal processing.

Plasticity

 Short-Term Plasticity involves changes in synaptic strength over short periods,

such as facilitation or depression.

 Long-Term Plasticity results in persistent changes in synaptic strength, crucial for

learning and memory.

 Short-term plasticity reflects quick changes in signal strength, while long-term

plasticity signifies lasting changes in signal strength.

 The process of synaptic plasticity allows the brain to adapt, learn, and form
memories.

 Changes in synaptic strength are influenced by neurotransmitter release and the

number of receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.

Synaptic Transmission

 Presynaptic Mechanisms involve neurotransmitter release from vesicles,

modulated by factors like calcium concentration.

 Postsynaptic Mechanisms include receptor binding and subsequent cellular

responses, such as ion channel opening.

 Understanding synaptic transmission is essential in grasping the flow of signals

between neurons.

 The process involves neurotransmitter release, binding to receptors, ion channel

opening, and generation of a new signal.

 Temporal and Spatial Summation play crucial roles in integrating signals at

synapses.
Synaptic Delay and Specificity

 Synaptic Delay refers to the time taken for a signal to be transmitted across a
synapse, typically between 0.5 and 2 milliseconds.

 Synaptic Specificity ensures precise communication networks within the brain by

forming synapses between specific neurons at specific sites.

 Understanding synaptic delay and specificity is fundamental in studying the

efficiency and accuracy of neural communication.

Quick reference
Key People
 Santiago Ramón y Cajal: A pioneer of neuroscience who demonstrated that the
nervous system is made up of individual cells (neurons) connected by synapses.
 Charles Scott Sherrington: Coined the term 'synapse' and contributed to the
understanding of reflexes and the organization of the nervous system.

Key Structures
Structure Description
Cell Body Contains the nucleus and organelles, responsible for maintaining
(Soma) the cell's health.
Dendrites Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons.
Axon A long projection that transmits signals away from the cell body to
other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Myelin Sheath Insulating layer around the axon that speeds up signal transmission.
Synaptic Cleft The gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons where
neurotransmitters are released.

Key Processes

Synaptic Transmission: The process by which neurotransmitters are released
from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron,
facilitating communication.
 Action Potential Propagation: The process by which an action potential travels
along the axon, involving depolarization and repolarization phases.
 Neurotransmitter Release: The release of chemical messengers from vesicles
in the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft.

Key Functions
Function Description
Excitatory Increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an
Synapses action potential (e.g., glutamate).
Inhibitory Decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing (e.g.,
Synapses GABA).
Plasticity The ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time,
crucial for learning and memory.
Blood-Brain Protects the brain from harmful substances while allowing
Barrier essential nutrients to pass.
Nourishment of Vertebrate neurons primarily depend on glucose for energy,
Neurons with active transport mechanisms for other essential nutrients.
 Facts to Memorize
 Number of neurons in the adult human brain: approximately 86 billion.
 Resting membrane potential: around -70 millivolts (mV).
 Threshold for action potential: around -55 mV.
 Speed of saltatory conduction: significantly faster than continuous conduction in
unmyelinated axons.

Reference Information
 Types of neurons: sensory, motor, interneurons.
 Types of glial cells: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, microglia,
ependymal cells.
 Key neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA.

Concept Comparisons
Concept Chemical Synapse Electrical Synapse
Mechanism Uses neurotransmitters to transmit Uses direct ion transfer
signals through gap junctions
Speed Slower due to chemical diffusion Faster due to direct
electrical connection
Communication One-way communication Can be bi-directional
Type (presynaptic to postsynaptic)
Example Most synapses in the brain and Heart, smooth muscle,
Locations body retina of the eye

Problem-Solving Steps
To understand the process of synaptic transmission, follow these steps:
1. Nerve Signal Arrival: A signal arrives at the presynaptic neuron.
2. Calcium Channel Opening: Calcium channels open, allowing calcium ions to
enter.
3. Neurotransmitter Release: Calcium influx triggers the release of
neurotransmitters from vesicles into the synaptic cleft.
4. Binding to Receptors: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron.
5. Ion Channel Opening: Binding opens ion channels, allowing ions to flow into the
postsynaptic neuron.
6. Signal Generation: If enough ions flow in, the postsynaptic neuron generates a
new signal.
Tips: Ensure to understand the role of calcium in neurotransmitter release and the
importance of receptor binding in generating a response.