Fc ans- sci n tech

Explain the development of science in ancient culture.

Science can be broadly defined as a systematic and organized

body of knowledge that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It aims to understand, explain, and
predict natural phenomena and the underlying principles that
govern the world around us. Science is not a fixed or unchanging
entity; it evolves over time as new discoveries are made and old
theories are refined or replaced.

Ancient period of history of man dates back to more than one

million years ago. The ancient man was completely dependent on
nature for survival. He observed nature and devised simple ways
to explain it. He made several attempts at experimenting on the
basis of his observation.

a) Stone age
During the early Stone Age, man was completely dependent on
what was available in nature. He experimented with resources for
food, shelter and clothing. Simple tools of stone, the discovery of
fire, clothes of animal skin are some of the discoveries he made
using his knowledge of nature. He also formed simple social and
religious institutions.

Though writing was not known to him, the various cave paintings
belonging to this period discovered all over the world show his
inclination towards culture. These painting might have also been
means of communication.

When man experimented with creating his own resources by

manipulating nature, the New Stone Age began. This shows that
by this time he had accumulated lots of knowledge of nature.
In the absence of writing, this knowledge was communicated
orally through generations.

By understanding season cycle and use of water he invented

agriculture around 9000 years ago. He also domesticated
animals. During this stage man‘s relationship with nature
changed. He became less dependent on nature.

b) Civilization stage
In around 3500 BC, man developed civilization. A new urban
society in which agriculture was developed, writing was invented,
trade and commerce flourished. Development of writing is one of
the biggest milestones of human kind history. It enabled man to
store knowledge.

Early form of writing was in symbols. Several inscriptions from

the Egyptian and Mesopotamian (ancient Iraq) civilizations give
us knowledge about life during that period. Arts and science was
developing during these civilizations.

The Sumerians of Iraq have contributed to modern science

with their numerical data. For e. g. the number system based on
60 is basis for 360 degree circle. Astronomical periods identified
by them are still widely used in lunar calendars. Babylonian
astronomy was the first attempt at refined mathematical
description of astronomical phenomena. Ancient Egypt made
significant developments in astronomy, medicine and
mathematics.
Prehistoric Era: Early humans observe and manipulate natural
elements for survival.
Ancient Mesopotamia: Basic mathematics, astronomy, and early
engineering.
Ancient Egypt: Advances in geometry, astronomy, and medicine.
Ancient Greece: Philosophical foundations of science, geometry,
astronomy (Ptolemy's model).
Explain development of science in renaissance.
Science can be broadly defined as a systematic and organized
body of knowledge that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It aims to understand, explain, and
predict natural phenomena and the underlying principles that
govern the world around us. Science is not a fixed or unchanging
entity; it evolves over time as new discoveries are made and old
theories are refined or replaced.

The modern period in European history was ushered in the

15th century by the Renaissance. The term renaissance means
rebirth in Italian. It was a cultural movement that brought new
thought and discoveries. After the rise of the Ottoman Empire in
the mid 15th century, scholars from Turkey moved to Europe with
ancient and medieval classics.

The rediscovery of classics by the Europeans led to the

reintroduction of reason and emphasis on human emotions and
ideas. The invention of printing press by Johan Gutenberg in
1436, ideas spread rapidly. With its centre in Italy, Renaissance
gradually spread towards north Europe by the 16th century.

The scholars and philosophers during this period rejected

medieval idea of god being the central idea for nature and art.
They developed new theories which rejected the classical
theories.

Nicolas Copernicus developed a more detailed and

accurate heliocentric theory of the planetary system. His book
explaining the revolution of earth and other heavenly bodies
revolving around the sun was banned by the church, since it
believed in the geocentric theory. He also made theoretical
studies in mathematics.

Johan Kepler was a strong follower of Copernicus‘s theory.

He studied it and added the fact that planets revolve around the
sun in ellipse and not complete circles. His contribution is the
famous Three Laws of planetary motion.

Galileo Galilee was the man of true renaissance spirit. He

was not only an astronomer, but also a physicist, mathematician
and philosopher.

His first scientific discovery was the law of pendulum. He later

successfully developed several devices like magnet, compass,
thermometer, microscope etc. His breakthrough discovery was
however, the use of telescope for observation of space. He is
known as the father of Modern physics as he developed the law
of falling bodies.

Francis Bacon argued that truth required evidence from the

real world. He devised the inductive method for study of nature.
He stated that scientist‘s should frame axioms or simple
statement and prove them through the process of experimentation
and analysis.

Apart from astronomy and mathematics, study of human

anatomy was also developing very differently from the classics.
While Andreas Vesalius laid the foundations of modern medicine
and anatomical studies, William Harvey described blood
circulation.

Leonardo da Vinci is known as the Renaissance man. He was a

scientist, mathematician, philosopher, architect and painter. He
wrote and drew on subjects including geology, anatomy, flight,
gravity and optics, often flitting from subject to subject on a single
page, and writing in left-handed mirror script.

He made proto types of the bicycle, airplane, helicopter, and

parachute.Renaissance was thus a period of new ideas and
growth of scientific knowledge.

The new ideas of reason and independent understanding of

nature were carried forward strongly in the late 17th century.
Scholars emphasized the right of individuals to think and express
themselves freely. During Renaissance the church opposed
scientific theories of Copernicus and Galileo. Such opposition of
church and domination of the monarchy was rejected during this
period. This led to the scientific revolution.

The Age of Enlightenment succeeding the Age of Reason

was the period of further scientific advancement. Reason was to
be the basis of authority and belief. Science was looked as a
study of nature with the aim of developing humanity and achieving
advanced progress. Intellectuals or Philosophers based their
arguments against any authority on the basis of logic. Thus in
social and political field also there was rejection of tyranny and
tradition.
Discuss role of scientific temper in promoting tolerance and
harmony.
Science can be broadly defined as a systematic and organized
body of knowledge that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It aims to understand, explain, and
predict natural phenomena and the underlying principles that
govern the world around us. Science is not a fixed or unchanging
entity; it evolves over time as new discoveries are made and old
theories are refined or replaced.

The attitude which enables man to apply logic and arrive at

decisions based on reliable and practical knowledge is said to be
scientific temper. It implies application of reasoning and
avoidance of preconceived notions as beliefs.

General views and beliefs develop because of traditionally

accepted views or because it is believed by important persons or
given in religious books. Scientific temper demands scrutiny of a
certain idea before believing it.

Discussions over it, arguing to prove or disprove its validity are

methods used to arrive at scientific knowledge with the application
of scientific temper. This attitude helps to dismiss superstitions
and blind beliefs. It encourages an open mind which strives to
achieve best possible reliable knowledge.

Importance:
The progress of a society today is said to depend upon its
member‘s attitude towards critical enquiry. Lack of such critical
approach can lead to imposition of unjust rules and dogmatic
ideas on the people. Such a society will be weak. Thus, scientific
temper is necessary for the establishment of a politically, socially
and intellectually strong society.

Scientific temper and harmony in society:

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India,
was a keen advisor of scientific temper. The makers of our Indian
constitution also realized its importance and hence have included
―the development of scientific temper and spirit of inquiry‖ as
one of the Fundamental Duty (article 51 A) of Indian citizens.

By developing such attitude humanism can be fostered among

the people. It will help in formation of a peaceful and civilized
society. India is a land of long history of tradition and also a land
of several religions. Heavy emphasis on both tradition and religion
create obstacle in the development of scientific temper in the
country. This attitude is a severe need of the society.

Scientific temper can be encouraged through education. A spirit of

inquiry should be developed at young age. Answers with proper
logic should be provided to questions of the young rather than just
dismissing them. Through history, tradition should be taught to
develop a sense of identity; they should not be imposed without
reasoning.

The present generation should become more acceptable to

reform. Challenge to tradition should be looked in the light of
progress if it is based on strong logical grounds. It should be
understood that scientific temper does not mean rejection of faith
or imposition of western culture. It implies a logical and proper
understanding of one‘s culture and nature

Science plays a very important role in the eradication of

superstition. Science requires proof and empirical data for coming
to conclusions. Superstitions are challenged by scientific method
in which they have failed completely. A spirit of inquiry can
provide answers to many unexplained phenomena and clear out
fears related to it.

The superstition of snake drinking milk on naag panchami, or bad

omen due to the sight of an owl and many banned activities like
not cooking on eclipse days are proved to be baseless through
scientific experiments.

Superstitions and blind faith has given rise to many social crimes
and injustices. It has also become hindrance to development of
the society. The importance of religion has also led to tensions
among various religious groups. Under the name of worship,
rituals and dogmatic religious customs, several sections of the
society are exploited.

Even when India is making new history with atomic development,

space researches and technological advancement, such
conditions prevail. To counter such sad condition of Indian society,
the development of scientific temper becomes the need of an
hour.

Myths are stories which may be or may not be true. It is

based on tradition or legend. They have deep symbolic meaning
in it. They are often used to explain beginnings of supernatural
beings. It is generally believed that myths were formed to explain
some natural phenomena. They are passed down from one
generation to another.

Myths often convey misleading or wrong knowledge. Therefore

scientists work towards proving these myths wrong with various
experiments and theories. Myths have importance in history but
are mixed with lies. They make interesting stories but cannot be
completely believed.

Prejudices are unfavorable or negative opinions held by

people without any knowledge or examination of facts. Prejudices
are created in minds of people because of certain stereotypes
associated with religion, caste, region, sexuality or nationality of a
person. There might be some negative experiences behind
development of such attitudes. Such attitudes also pass from one
generation to another.

For e.g. the phrase of kanjus Marwari in colloquial has developed

because of the strict business attitude of the Marwari‘s. There is
general prejudice among urban people that rural people are
uneducated, backward minded and poor.
Explain the role of science in exploding myth.
Science can be broadly defined as a systematic and organized
body of knowledge that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It aims to understand, explain, and
predict natural phenomena and the underlying principles that
govern the world around us. Science is not a fixed or unchanging
entity; it evolves over time as new discoveries are made and old
theories are refined or replaced.

The attitude which enables man to apply logic and arrive at

decisions based on reliable and practical knowledge is said to be
scientific temper. It implies application of reasoning and
avoidance of preconceived notions as beliefs.

The progress of a society today is said to depend upon its

member‘s attitude towards critical enquiry. Lack of such critical
approach can lead to imposition of unjust rules and dogmatic
ideas on the people. Such a society will be weak. Thus, scientific
temper is necessary for the establishment of a politically, socially
and intellectually strong society.

The progress of a society today is said to depend upon its

member‘s attitude towards critical enquiry. Lack of such critical
approach can lead to imposition of unjust rules and dogmatic
ideas on the people. Such a society will be weak. Thus, scientific
temper is necessary for the establishment of a politically, socially
and intellectually strong society.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India,

was a keen advisor of scientific temper. The makers of our Indian
constitution also realized its importance and hence have included
―the development of scientific temper and spirit of inquiry‖ as
one of the Fundamental Duty (article 51 A) of Indian citizens. By
developing such attitude humanism can be fostered among the
people. It will help in formation of a peaceful and civilized society.
India is a land of long history of tradition and also a land of
several religions.

Myths are stories which may be or may not be true. It is

based on tradition or legend. They have deep symbolic meaning
in it. They are often used to explain beginnings of supernatural
beings. It is generally believed that myths were formed to explain
some natural phenomena. They are passed down from one
generation to another.

Myths often convey misleading or wrong knowledge. Therefore

scientists work towards proving these myths wrong with various
experiments and theories. Myths have importance in history but
are mixed with lies. They make interesting stories but cannot be
completely believed.

Almost all cultures over the world have their own myths.
Some myths have become part of religious explanations. For
example the earliest known myth supported by the Bible was, the
earth revolved around the sun and the earth was flat. Scientists
since the 13th century have found evidence and tried to explain
that the earth was round. The sun is stationery, while the earth
and other planets revolve around it. It was only by the 17th
century that the church accepted this fact. There are varied
theories which explain the creation of the universe.

Many of these including the Greek and Hindu mythology explain

that the creation of the universe was a gradual process and some
order was brought in this world by supernatural forces. While
much of it might be unreal, the essence of it may be the same as
the Big Bang theory given by the scientists. As new scientific
knowledge was gained, gradually many other such myths were
broken. There is therefore an opposite relationship between myth
and science. Science is progressive, while myths are incorrect
knowledge disguised as truths.
Explain principles and characteristics of science.
Science can be broadly defined as a systematic and organized
body of knowledge that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It aims to understand, explain, and
predict natural phenomena and the underlying principles that
govern the world around us. Science is not a fixed or unchanging
entity; it evolves over time as new discoveries are made and old
theories are refined or replaced.

here are the principles and characteristics of science:

Principles of Science:

Empirical Observation: Science is based on observing the natural

world through direct experience or experimentation. It relies on
evidence that can be measured, observed, and tested.

Empirical Evidence: Scientific conclusions are drawn from

empirical evidence, which is gathered systematically through
controlled experiments, observations, and measurements.

Testability: Scientific ideas and hypotheses must be testable

through experimentation and observation. They should be framed
in a way that allows them to be confirmed or refuted based on
evidence.
Falsifiability: Scientific hypotheses must be formulated in a way
that they can potentially be proven false. This principle is
important for maintaining the integrity of scientific inquiry.

Objectivity: Science strives to be objective and unbiased.

Researchers aim to minimize personal biases and preconceived
notions when designing experiments and interpreting results.

Reproducibility: Scientific experiments and findings should be

reproducible by other researchers. This ensures that results are
reliable and not due to chance or errors.

Tentativeness: Scientific knowledge is subject to change as new

evidence emerges. Conclusions are considered tentative and can
be revised in light of new information.

Cumulative Progress: Science builds upon previous knowledge,

leading to the gradual accumulation of understanding over time.
New discoveries contribute to the refinement of existing theories
or the development of new ones.

Characteristics of Science:

Systematic Approach: Science follows a systematic and

structured approach to investigating phenomena. It involves
formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, collecting data,
and drawing conclusions.

Evidence-Based: Scientific claims are supported by empirical

evidence rather than personal opinions or anecdotes. Rigorous
data collection and analysis are essential components of scientific
inquiry.

Natural Explanations: Science seeks natural explanations for

observed phenomena. While not dismissing supernatural or
philosophical explanations, the focus is on explanations rooted in
the natural world.

Peer Review: Scientific research is subject to peer review, where

other experts in the field critically assess and evaluate the validity
and quality of research before it is published.

Openness and Transparency: Scientists are expected to be

transparent about their methods, data, and findings. This
transparency allows for scrutiny and replication by others.

Universal Principles: Scientific principles and laws are expected to

be consistent across different times, places, and contexts. They
provide a universal framework for understanding the natural
world.

Ethical Considerations: Science operates within ethical

guidelines, respecting the well-being of research subjects, the
environment, and society as a whole.

Innovation and Creativity: While adhering to established methods,

science encourages creative thinking and innovation to devise
new ways of exploring and explaining the world.
Interdisciplinary Nature: Science often crosses disciplinary
boundaries, with insights from one field contributing to discoveries
in another. Collaboration between different disciplines enriches
scientific progress.

Skepticism and Critical Thinking: Scientists approach their work

with skepticism, critically evaluating hypotheses and evidence to
ensure robust and reliable results.

These principles and characteristics collectively define the nature

of science, guiding the way scientific research is conducted and
how knowledge is advanced
Discuss scientific temper as fundamental duty of Indian
citizen.
Same as sci temper answer, mention jawaharlal nehru first
Distinguish between science and technology.

Science can be broadly defined as a systematic and organized

body of knowledge that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It aims to understand, explain, and
predict natural phenomena and the underlying principles that
govern the world around us. Science is not a fixed or unchanging
entity; it evolves over time as new discoveries are made and old
theories are refined or replaced.

Technology is the application of scientific knowledge. It means

production of such machinery, arrangements and procedures
meant to achieve a certain goal or perform a function. Today
every field of human work, from industry to medicine, is affected
by and improved with technology. The first stone tool created by
man was a technological production at that time since it was a
product of man‘s knowledge.

The very definition of technology explains it as an extension

of science. The relationship between the both has several
dimensions. New scientific knowledge leads to its application in a
new field and for a new purpose.

For e. g. the discovery of nano science has lead to advancement

not only in computer technology but also in cosmetics and
refrigerators. Technology is the way by which scientific knowledge
is combined with practical value and put to the benefit of
humankind. Both science and technology are based on
experimentation and creation.
Scientists explain natural phenomena on the basis of
experiments. Many a times such experiments are done on
instruments, tools and machines developed through earlier
technologies.

Science and technology take inspiration from one another for

further development. Based on basic electrical sciences,
engineers develop such machinery which is used in advanced
electrical appliances. On the other hand, some technological
devices provide science explanation of some unknown
phenomena

Technology is not confined to use in one sector only. With

more and more developed scientific knowledge a better
technology is induced. New technology makes the earlier one
inadequate. As technology is productive it also has its demerits
Though we have seen that both science and technology are
related in many ways, they are different in nature.

Differences between science and technology:

1.Purpose: Science and technology have fundamentally different
purposes. The main aim of science is to explain natural
phenomenon through scientific method of observation and
experimentation.
Technology aims at creation of a product through intellect and
design based concepts and methods. While science only
observes and understands, technology intervenes in nature.
Rather than meeting a human need or opportunity, it is primarily
driven by curiosity about something.
2. Aims Technology aims at the satisfaction of the end users of a
product, process or environment. Science aims at discovery or
verification of a certain element of nature.

3.Role of value: Scientific knowledge is objective. The theories

and laws developed as scientific knowledge cannot be termed
good or bad.
However technological products do have negative implications on
human nature. For e.g. nuclear power and its use as scientific
knowledge is not bad, however bomb producing technology for
terror purpose is surely inhuman.

4. Evaluation methods Scientific knowledge is evaluated through

analysis of data.Theories are created and they are tested over
various experiments and on the basis of several hypotheses.
Other scientists have to give validation to the theories as being
true so that they can be established as laws or universal facts.

Technological products are not based on assumptions and

hypothesis but verified on the basis of analysis of designs. Thus
no validation for truth is required in technology. Science involves
formation of theories based on accurate
data, while technology involves use of available data to create
approximate models. Technology is therefore different from
science in its goals, methodology and also final product.
Explain role of technology in economic and social
development.

Technology is the application of scientific knowledge. It means

production of such machinery, arrangements and procedures
meant to achieve a certain goal or perform a function. Today
every field of human work, from industry to medicine, is affected
by and improved with technology. The first stone tool created by
man was a technological production at that time since it was a
product of man‘s knowledge.

Technology has helped increasing productivity and efficiency

in every field that it is employed.

1. Agriculture: Technology has helped to improve agricultural

production all over the world with the use of tractors and other
machines. It has improved productivity in low rainfall lands with
new methods of irrigation. It has also enhanced food quality with
use of fertilizers, pesticides and also new seed qualities.

2. Transport and communication: Man‘s travel is not only

increased in speed but also in safety owing to new technological
inventions in transport. Air travel is common today and also safe.
Transportation technology has helped develop better trade too.

The internet has revolutionized communication among people.

Since communication technology is one of the cheaply available
modes, it has connected people even from remotest areas. Today
the world is at one‘s fingertips with ipads, tablets and
Smartphones.
3. Industry: Production is made easier with the help of computers
which handle much of the work, minimizing the efforts of
labourers. In some factories such as car production, the entire
production process is run by robots. In many of the industries
today, designs and test models are designed on computers
completely and viewed with 3D technology before making the
actual product.

Technology has reduced the cost of production and increased the

efficiency in production on a large scale. One of the
disadvantages of technology based industry is unemployment
especially in labour intensive countries like India.

4. Services: The service sector has also been improved with

technology. Booking tickets, shopping, handling bank accounts
and even setting up a business, such works are easily done with
the help of computers and internet.

5. Medicine: Advanced medical inventions have helped to cure

many diseases. Vaccinations, diagnosis and operation
equipments have increased the lives of people by detecting life
threatening diseases at early stages and performing microscopic
surgeries on highly risky organs like the heart and the brain. Many
diseases like polio, chicken pox etc are completely curable today.

Technology has changed media and its forms. Man has

reached space and is researching more about the universe with
advancing space technology. Many other fields like construction,
logistics, education and commerce have also progressed with
better technology

Discuss Science as empirical, practical, theoretical, and

validates knowledge.

Science can be broadly defined as a systematic and organized

body of knowledge that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It aims to understand, explain, and
predict natural phenomena and the underlying principles that
govern the world around us. Science is not a fixed or unchanging
entity; it evolves over time as new discoveries are made and old
theories are refined or replaced.

How science is empirical, practical, theoretical and validates

knowledge -

Empirical:
Observation of a particular element means to notice and
study it, in ―as it is‖ form. In scientific observation several
techniques are applied for investigating phenomena and acquiring
knowledge.

The empirical data gathered through observation is subjective

based on observer. To rule out such errors scientific instruments
are used. They help to channelize the sense through a particular
channel and help to avoid differences in sensory perceptions like
optical illusions. Standard units of measurements are followed
during observation. Measuring of qualitative data helps in
comparing and testing it.
Since the observer does not interfere in the natural form of the
phenomena during observation best of the factual data can be82
collected during this process. . Experimentation of observed
information is the best way to quantify data and arrive at
conclusions.

Experiments are processes devised to verify the validity of

the hypothesis and understand the empirical data under selected
conditions. An experiment is the test which tests the observations
and brings out such results that add to the knowledge of the
phenomena. During an experiment the scientists observes the
phenomena in a controlled environment.

Practical:
The logical process adopted by scientists to developbknowledge
of nature and present it as acceptable fact is known as the
scientific method. This method is based on gathering empirical
data through observation and experimentation and the formulation
and testing of hypotheses.

The scientific method consists of the following four elements:

a) Defining research problem: To determine what phenomenon
has to be understood, what has to be observed and how it has to
be measured.

b) Hypotheses: hypothesis is a logical predictive statement

regarding the outcome of the research. Developing hypothesis
provides direction to the research. A hypothesis can be proved
wrong during the process of research. In this case also it is helpful
because it helps to find out other logical steps to reach a certain
conclusion.

c) Observation and experimentation: testing

characterization, hypothesis, predictions. Verify the empirical
data.

d)Conclusions: based on experimentation and logic, derive

conclusions to understand the phenomena.

By following this process, new theories can be developed,

existing theories can be tested under new hypothesis also
existing hypotheses can be verified through new experiments
devised to test them.

Theoretical:
The experiments are devised in a manner such that the
hypothesis can be tested using various parameters. It should be
repeatable to enable further checking by any other scientists.
Experiment is not the ultimate step to understand phenomena. It
is coupled with observation. Scientists can skip experimentation in
certain cases where observational data explains fact, logic,
intuition and even sometimes accidents reveal information.

Scientific objectivity ensures that no knowledge is imposed in

the society which is not verifiable. It also ascertains that personal
biases, emotional involvement and personal beliefs do not
interfere with formation of scientific knowledge. Scientific
knowledge is not only useful in theoretical studies but also for
general knowledge and development of education. Stress on
objectivity makes sure that scientific results and theories are
presented in most unambiguous and simple manner

Apart from measurement the experiment also becomes an

element in objectivity. The experiment for validation of hypothesis
should be devised in such a manner that it can be repeated. If the
experiment performed by other scientists produces same results
only then does the theory proposed becomes acceptable.
Reproducibility of scientific experiments is required for universal
acceptance and objectivity.

Validates knowledge:
Scientific objectivity assumes that the experiments have
been properly performed and the quantitative data has not been
tampered with. If the data is objectively obtained then its results
are acceptable and reliable.
Sources and experiments can be verified to authenticate the
theories presented. Scientific objectivity thus also implies sharing
of knowledge available for testing. Hypotheses should be subject
to criticism. Only then can they invite further research and
development.

It also brings out the element of scientific measurement.

Such standard measurement is developed that can be used by
other scientists except the originator to further develop the theory.
It expects universality of empirical tests
Scientific objectivity ensures that no knowledge is imposed in
the society which is not verifiable. It also ascertains that personal
biases, emotional involvement and personal beliefs do not
interfere with formation of scientific knowledge. Scientific
knowledge is not only useful in theoretical studies but also for
general knowledge and development of education. Stress on
objectivity makes sure that scientific results and theories are
presented in most unambiguous and simple manner