CHAPTER 1

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED

SOCIETY
 SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly
identify when and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has
existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined?

1.) Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories , and all available systemic
explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.

2.) Science as an intellectual activity. It encompases a systemic and practical

study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systemic
observation and experimentation.

3.) Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of

study, or a body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the
natural and physical world.
4.) Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both
knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of
the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life.

Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the
fields of mathematics, physics , astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed the
views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern science
as a result of these developments from the disciplines mentioned.
SOME INTELLECTUALS AND THEIR REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS:

1.) Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) was a mathematician and astronomer who proposed
that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth revolved around it.
He proposed a heliocentric system, that the planets orbit around the Sun; that Earth is a
planet which, besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that
very slow changes in the direction of this axis account for the precession of the equinoxes.
2.) Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist,
widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all
species of life have descended from a common ancestor is now generally
accepted and considered a fundamental concept in science.
3.) Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies
explained as originating in conflicts in the psyche, through dialogue between a
patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud proposed that the mind is divided into
three components: id, ego, and superego, and that the interactions and
conflicts among the components create personality. Freud proposed that we
use defence mechanisms to cope with anxiety and maintain a positive self-
image.
Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the
border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture
and knowledge prior to the arrival of it’s European colonizers.

The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000
years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their
advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time, as
evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting
and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated
calendar systems. These calenders were very useful for their life especially in planning their
activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the
field of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints
made from a mineral called mica.
The Inca civilizations is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas
considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that
they developed to help them in everyday life:

1.) roads paved with stones;

2.) stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3.) irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;
4.) calender with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;
5.) the first suspension bridge;
6.) quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7.) Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

Following the Inca, The Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and
technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

1.) Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education ; that is why their children are mandated
to get education regardless of their social class, gender or age.
2.) Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture, they
used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their
gods.

3.) Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle
spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.

4.) Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided
into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.

5.) Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals and planting season.

6.) Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA

ASIA is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to
many cultural, economic, scientific , and political activities of all ages. In the field of science,
technology and mathematics, great civilizations. These civilizations have stood out: India, China and
the Middle East civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to
the development of knowledge during their time.

INDIA
India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its
northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their
everyday lives. They are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is
considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire. India is also famous
in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in India before
2500 BC; is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine.
CHINA

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life
like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy and music, among others.
Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of neighbor countries like Korea, Japan,
Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and other countries that belong to the
old Silk Road.

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and
discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical properties and uses of
different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example is the practice of
acupuncture.

In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous
discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking,
gunpowder and printing tools that became known in the west only by the end of the Middle
Ages.

In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar
and solar eclipses, comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand
better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world.
MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7 th and
8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the
13th century.
A muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his
empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept
of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his
publications. What is now known as the Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim
mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of
decimal point notation.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. In
particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the “Father of Chemistry”.

In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first
physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and
the Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal text in both the Muslim world and in Europe
during the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of
infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet
long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show that similar to
other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers, too.

Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry.
They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components such as
examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components
displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science.

Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that Africans used
three types of calendars: lunar, solar and stellar, or a combination of three.

Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North Africa and the Nile
Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to benefit from the
developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age.