COMPUTER SCIENCE

SOFTWARE

Software refers to a set of instructions written in computer language that tell a computer to
perform a specific task, like adding a set of numbers.

Without software, a computer will be useless. Software is grouped into systems software and
application software. The diagram below illustrates branches/groups of software:

Systems Software:

Refers to programs that control and manages the performance of all computer systems.
Systems software comprises of:

(a) Operating systems (b) Utility programs (c) Translators

1) Operating System:

Refers to the programs that supervise, control and manage the performance of the computer
hardware and software in accordance with set objectives, for example, Windows XP.
Examples of operating systems include: Windows 95/98/2000/XP/ VISTA/ Windows
7/Windows 8, Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), Unix, Linux, OS/2, etc.

Functions of the operating system:

 Controls movement of data to and from peripherals.

 Acts as a background on which application programs can run.
 Manages hardware, software and memory resources of a computer.
 Acts as an interface between the user and the computer.
 Scheduling and loading of programs to provide continuous job processing sequence.
Provides a log of users for the computer.
 Handling of errors and correcting them where possible.
 Protect hardware, software and data from improper use.
 Control over the selection and operation of input, output and storage devices of the
computer.
 Booting and shutting down the computer.

Features (characteristics) of operating systems:

 Must be reliable in terms of being free from errors and handling of all jobs.
 Must be efficient, that is should be able to use resources fully ensuring good job
processing, response time, turnaround time, etc.
 Must be maintainable.
 Must be small in terms of storage space on the disk.

*NB: Response time – the time that elapses from the moment an instruction is given to the
computer and the time that instruction is carried out.
Turnaround time – the time taken from the moment a document is produced by a computer
and the moment it is used as an input document to that computer again.

NB. Most operating systems are written in low level language. This is for them to quickly
coordinate computer activities since they will not be converted as they are already in machine
language.

The following must be considered when buying an operating system:

a. Hardware type and computer design e.g. windows operating system works well on
IBM compatible machines.
b. Applications intended for the computer e.g. accounting, stock taking, etc.
c. Method of communicating with the computer, that is, use of few or many peripherals
and terminals.
d. Method of operating the computer e.g. multi access, multi programming, etc

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Single User Operating Systems:

These are operating systems that allow one computer user at a time in an interactive mode,
for example MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2, etc.

Advantages of Single user operating systems are:

 They are cheap to buy. They are interactive, that is,

 They allow a two way communication between the user and the computer in a
conversational mode.
 They ensure better security to data since they only allow one user at a time.
 They provide simple command language.

Disadvantages of Single user operating systems are:

 They are very slow in processing data.

 Most of the computers are dedicated to one task.
 The commands are difficult to learn and to use.
 Commands are difficult to master.

NB- Control Programs: These are programs that monitor hardware operation on the
computer. –

Monitor (supervisor) programs: - These are programs that supervise and manage hardware
and software elements of the computer

2. Time sharing operating systems:

 This type of operating system allows many users to use the same processor at a time, using
the round robin method by use of time slices. In Round Robin, each user is given a fraction
of a second to use the processor so that all users seem not to be sharing the processor.

*NB: - Time slice: A brief period of time during which a particular task is given control of
the microprocessor in a time-sharing multitasking environment. A computer's processor is
allocated to an application, usually measured in milliseconds. Time slice is also called
quantum.

Multitasking: It is the concurrent execution of two or more programs on the same computer
by use of time slices.

3. Multi Access / Multi user operating systems:

It is when many online users access one processor at the same time to make use of multi-
programming.

4. Multi-programming:

This is whereby two or more programs (tasks) are being processed (run) at the same time on
one computer by use of time slices, for example playing music while typing a document.
Programs may take turns to make use of the processor, thus when one is using the CPU,
others will be using the peripherals. It uses interrupts to pass control from one program to
another.

5. Multiprocessing:

A type of operating system that allows one computer to have two or more processors but
sharing the same memory, e.g. dual core computers.

6. Batch Processing System: -

A system in which data is collected over a long period of time, put in groups and processed
with minimum or without user interaction as in payroll processing. Jobs can be entered at a
remote terminal, that is, without direct communication with the host computer.

Thus batch processing promotes Remote Job Entry (RJE): which is the entering of data into
the computer through a terminal far away from the host computer. - For instance, a central
computer can process batches of cheques collected from different branches, mostly during
the night. If there are errors, the results will also be wrong. Batch processing is very cheap to
operate and easy to run. Users can also perform some other tasks while batch processing
takes place. - In batch processing, there is minimum or no human intervention during data
processing period. It is used where large amounts of data is processed and where processing
does not need to be done immediately, e.g. in Payroll processing, water billing, electricity
billing, telephone billing, clearance of cheques, etc).

Advantages of batch processing are as follows:

  It is less expensive to use.
 Processing does not need to be done with anyone present.
 Users do not need to be specialists in computers.
 It allows remote job entry.

Disadvantages of batch processing are as follows:

 Batch processing systems are not interactive.

 Data is processed after a long period of time.
 No action can be taken if anything wrong happens during processing.

b. Translators: -

These are programs that convert source code to object code. Translators are in two forms,
which are interpreters and compilers. These will be covered in more detail under
Programming Languages.

c. Utility Programs:

These are programs used to perform specific, useful and frequently needed tasks in a
computer.

Utilities include the following:

i. Virus Scan Utility: These are programs that protect computers from virus attacks, for
example Norton Antivirus, AVG, Avast, EsatNOD32, MacAfee, etc.
ii. Sort Utilities: These are programs used to arrange data, files and records into a
specific ordered sequence, for instance in ascending or descending order of a given
key.
iii. Debuggers: These are utilities used for assisting in correcting errors in programs.
iv. Dump Utilities: These are programs that assist in copying data from main storage to
output devices and to other storage devices like the hard drive.
v. Editors: These are programs used to make changes to data already held in the
computer.
vi. Peripheral Transfer Utility: These are programs used to transfer data from one
peripheral device to another.
vii. System Status Utilities: These are programs that provide information on the state of
files, memory, users and peripherals.
viii. File Maintenance Utilities: These are programs used to reorganise programs and to
update them.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

This refers to programs and their documentation, designed to perform a specific task like
payroll processing, word processing, etc. Application package (suite):- a collection of
application programs purchased as one package, for example Microsoft Office 2010.
Integrated Package: A collection of a word processor, spreadsheet, database and presentation
packages bought as one package, for example, Microsoft Office 2010.

Advantages of Integrated Packages are:

 It is cheap to buy as compared to buying single application programs at a time.

 Programs have been tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
 Programs are designed in a similar way, making it easier to learn others if you are
able to use one of them.
 Programs are easier to use and to learn, for example, when designing a database using
Microsoft Access.
 Regular updates are provided on the internet or on disks.

Disadvantages of integrated packages are as follows:

 They are not tailored for individual user requirements.

 Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their use.
 The packaged programs can only be modified by the programmers (owners).
 Most of the need regular updating, which may be expensive.

Methods of Acquiring Software

1. Off-the-Shelf:

This refers to buying generalised software like Microsoft Word from software vendors.
Generalised (generic) software refers to application programs designed for use in a number of
organisations without problems, for example Microsoft Word. A software vendor is an
organisation that specialises in selling generic software.

Advantages of generic software:

 Cheaper than custom written (tailor made) packages.

 They are immediately available in shops.
 They are tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
 Documentation is always provided in form of manuals, user guides and tutorials that
may be in soft or hardcopy.
 Training courses can be available from other end-users.
 Technical support is always available from other users and from the internet.
 Other users of the package can be consulted before purchasing or when a problem
occurs. Upgrades are always available every year or two.
 It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as chances are they also
have the software available to open the file

Disadvantages of Generic Software:

 May not meet the individual needs of an organisation.

 May not run on the organisation‘s hardware.
 May not interface with other software already in use in the organisation.
  Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their usage.
 Organisations purchasing them have no right to modify them.
 The software can be very sophisticated and will usually include large sections that
you will never use (e.g. Excel or Word)

2. Tailor-made Software (bespoke):

These are programs specifically designed to meet the needs of only one organisation, for
example a bank. The organisation would employ or hire an analyst / programmer who will
first asses the needs of the organisation before designing a program that will solve the
problems of the organisation.

Advantages of tailor made software

 Easier and more intuitive to use.

 You will receive much better support and can in many cases talk directly to the
developers concerned

Disadvantages of Tailor-made software:

 It is very expensive to develop.

 They take too long to develop and to implement.
 If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is unstable,
unreliable and full of fbugs

*NB: A programmer is a person who specialises in designing, coding and testing computer
programs.

Software House is an organisation that specialises is developing software; this includes both
generic and tailor-made.

Special Purpose Application Software: - These are programs designed for one specific
business purpose, for example Pastel for accounting purposes.

Advantages of Generic Software Over tailor made software:

 Off - the - self software is cheaper to buy while tailor-made software is expensive.
 Generic software has been tried and tested hence free from errors while tailor-made
software may have some errors.
 Generic software is easier and faster to implement while tailor made software takes
long to implement.
 Generic software is used by many organisations; therefore users can share information
on its usage while tailor-made software is only used by one organisation.
 Generic software has regular updates available for download on the internet while
tailor-made software does not.
Advantages of tailor made software as compared to Generic Software:

 Tailor-made software is designed to meet the requirements of an organisation while

generic software might not meet the needs of an individual company.
 Organisations have full control over tailor-made software as compared to off-the-shelf
software which is controlled by the programmers.

TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE:

These include:

1. Word Processing Packages:

These are application packages used for creating, editing and formatting text documents like
letters and reports. Word Processing packages include Microsoft Office Word, WordPerfect,
WordPro, Notepad, etc.

Word processing packages have the following advantages over the typewriter:

Produces more attractive documents.

Word processors are less noise than typewriters.
Documents can be edited and formatted before printing, which reduces spelling and
other typing mistakes on printed documents.
Typed documents can be stored in the computer for future use.
Document layout can be viewed on the screen before printing and can be changed
easily.
A word processed document can be printed more than once.
Other text and diagrams can be added without the need to retype the document.
Word processors can move some parts of text to another part of the document easily.
They have the ability to delete words, sentences and paragraphs. They are less manual
than typewriters.

*NB: Editing: the process of correcting mistakes in a document, for example, spelling
mistakes.

Formatting: making a document look more attractive by bolding, underlining, inserting

borders, etc

2. Spread sheet Packages:

These are application programs used to manage and analyse statistical, numeric and financial
data, for example Microsoft Office Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, SuperCalc, etc.

3. Presentation Packages:

These are programs used for designing slides for a presentation to an audience, for example
Microsoft Office PowerPoint, Lotus Smart Suite, etc. Presentation packages include text,
pictures, sound, animation, graphics and tables, thus being multimedia. Presentations are
colourful and attractive. Speakers and projectors are needed.

Presentation packages have the following features:

Have Clip art.

Can accommodate images and graphics.
Can use sound, video and animation.
Incorporate Word Art.
Have facility to insert charts and graphs.

*NB: Animation: - Creating illusion of moving sequence using a series of still images as
done in movies and cartoons.

4. Database Packages:

Refers to programs used to create databases for storage and management of a collection of
data related to a particular subject, for examples Microsoft Office Access, Dbase IV, etc

4. Graphics Packages:

Refers to programs used to create and edit graphs, diagrams, drawings, charts and plans for
buildings, for example Microsoft Paint, Harvard Graphics, Corel Draw, Real Draw, etc.
Computer graphics are images designed for logos, commercial and news inserts during
television advertisements or transmission.

5. Communication Software:

These are programs that allow users to communicate on networked computers and to log on
to the internet, for example TCP/IP software, Client – server software, etc.

*NB: - Log On: to provide a username and password for the user to gain access to a
computer or computer network.

7. Desktop Publishing (DTP) Packages:

It is an extension of word processors that incorporates images and text for creation of
attractive and professional documents for publication purposes, and these include Microsoft
Publisher, PageMaker and QuarkXPress.

DTP is used to create brochures, magazines, wedding cards and newsletters

Features of DTP include:

 They have a graphic program for inserting graphics in the document.

 They have a page composition program.
 They incorporate columns on one page.
 They have frames for positioning texts and graphics.
  They have templates used for recording document properties like page size, margins,
etc. They have style sheets used for making consistent main texts, headings and
subheadings.

Requirements for DTP:

(a) A Scanner: - for capturing images or hand drawings on paper, for example photographs
(b) High Resolution Monitor with graphics capabilities: - For viewing publication during
design stage.

(c) Colour Printer: For printing high quality and colourful documents.

(d) Digital camera: - for taking and storage of photographs that will be incorporated into the
computer.

(e) Keyboard: For typing in text

(f) Mouse: - For adjusting size of pictures and for drawing purposes.

(g) Desktop Publishing (DTP) software.

Advantages of Desktop Publishing:

a. Users have more control over text layout compared to word processors especially over
formatting and layout of text.
b. Lots of different files can be brought together on the same document.
c. Produces colourful and attractive documents for commercial purposes like brochures

7. Authoring Packages:

Software that can be used to develop interactive computer programs without the technically
demanding task of computer programming. Also used in multimedia presentations. These
programs can be used for developing databases and material for Computer Aided Instruction
(CAI).

*NB: - Specialist Packages for Business: These are packages for use in a specific business
environment, for example, Pastel for accounting purposes. *NB: - Install: - to add programs
to the computer. Therefore to uninstall is to remove programs from the computer.

Factors to consider when purchasing an application package:

 Application intended for.

 Easiness of installation.
 Mode of processing (single user, multi user, etc).
 User friendliness.
 Availability of support personnel.
 Availability, readability and clarity of documentation.
 Memory requirements.
 Hardware requirements.