Unit 2

Q1. what do you understand by PIC (Programmable Interrupt Controller) in

embedded system?

Ans

In the context of embedded systems and computer architecture, a

Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) is a hardware component
responsible for managing and controlling interrupt requests
generated by various peripheral devices and system components.
The primary purpose of a PIC is to prioritize and direct these
interrupt requests to the appropriate interrupt handler or service
routine in the CPU.

Here are some key aspects of a Programmable Interrupt Controller

(PIC) in embedded systems:

1. Interrupt Handling: Embedded systems often consist of multiple

peripheral devices, such as timers, UARTs, and input/output devices,
that need to interrupt the CPU when they require attention (e.g.,
when data is ready to be processed). The PIC's role is to receive
these interrupt signals and manage their handling.
2. Priority Management: Different devices or components may have
varying levels of importance or urgency. The PIC allows for the
prioritization of interrupt requests, ensuring that higher-priority
interrupts are serviced before lower-priority ones.
3. Interrupt Masking: The PIC provides a mechanism to enable or
disable interrupts selectively. This allows the system to control
which interrupts can interrupt the CPU's current execution and
which are temporarily blocked.
4. Interrupt Vectoring: When an interrupt occurs, the PIC provides
information about the source of the interrupt to the CPU. This
information typically includes an interrupt vector, which is an index
or address pointing to the location of the corresponding interrupt
service routine (ISR) in memory.
5. Cascading: In systems with a large number of peripheral devices or
multiple levels of interrupt controllers, PICs can be cascaded to
manage a more extensive range of interrupt sources efficiently. This
enables hierarchical organization of interrupts.
6. Configuration and Initialization: PICs are typically
programmable, allowing system developers to configure their
behavior, such as setting interrupt priorities, enabling or disabling
specific interrupt sources, and specifying interrupt edge-triggered or
level-triggered behavior.

One well-known example of a PIC in the context of x86-based PC

architecture is the Intel 8259 Programmable Interrupt Controller,
which was historically used for managing interrupts in early personal
computers.

Programmable Interrupt Controllers play a crucial role in ensuring

that embedded systems can respond to various external events and
perform critical tasks in a timely and organized manner. Their
configuration and management are vital aspects of embedded
system design to ensure proper functioning and real-time
responsiveness.

Q2. what do you understand by ARM in embedded system?

Ans

In the context of embedded systems, "ARM" refers to the ARM

architecture or the ARM processor cores. ARM is a widely used and
highly regarded architecture for designing microprocessors and
microcontroller units (MCUs) that are commonly found in embedded
systems. Here's what ARM signifies in the embedded system
context:

1. ARM Architecture: The ARM architecture is a family of computer

instruction set architectures (ISAs) developed by ARM Holdings (now
part of NVIDIA) and licensed to various semiconductor
manufacturers. ARM-based processors are known for their energy
efficiency, high performance, and scalability. The ARM architecture
is widely used in various embedded system applications, including
smartphones, tablets, automotive systems, IoT devices, and more.
2. ARM Processor Cores: ARM processors come in a variety of core
designs, each tailored to specific performance and power efficiency
requirements. Some popular ARM processor cores used in
embedded systems include the Cortex-M series (e.g., Cortex-M0,
 Cortex-M3, Cortex-M4, Cortex-M7), which are optimized for
microcontroller applications, and the Cortex-A series (e.g., Cortex-
A53, Cortex-A72), which are designed for higher-performance
applications such as smartphones and embedded Linux systems.
3. Versatility: One of the key advantages of ARM-based processors is
their versatility. They can be found in a wide range of embedded
systems, from small, low-power IoT devices to high-performance
multimedia systems. This versatility allows developers to choose
ARM processors that best match their specific requirements.
4. Ecosystem: ARM-based processors have a rich ecosystem of
development tools, compilers, operating systems, and libraries,
making it easier for embedded system developers to create
software and firmware for their devices. This ecosystem includes
popular development platforms like ARM Keil, GCC (GNU Compiler
Collection), and various real-time operating systems (RTOS).
5. Energy Efficiency: ARM processors are known for their energy-
efficient designs, which make them well-suited for battery-powered
and low-power embedded applications. This efficiency is crucial in
applications like mobile devices, wearables, and IoT sensors.
6. Scalability: The ARM architecture allows for scalability, enabling
designers to select processors with the right balance of performance
and power consumption for their specific applications. This
scalability is particularly useful in embedded systems, where
different devices may have vastly different processing requirements.

In summary, ARM is a dominant and versatile architecture used in

embedded systems, offering a wide range of processor cores and a
rich ecosystem of development tools. Its combination of energy
efficiency, scalability, and performance has made it a popular choice
for a broad spectrum of embedded applications.

Q3. what do you understand by AVR in embedded system?

 Ans

AVR in the context of embedded systems typically refers to a family

of microcontrollers developed by Atmel, which is now part of
Microchip Technology. AVR stands for "Alf and Vegard's RISC
Processor" (named after the two Norwegian designers, Alf-Egil
Bogen and Vegard Wollan), but it is commonly associated with
"Advanced Virtual RISC."

Here are some key characteristics and features of AVR

microcontrollers in embedded systems:

1. RISC Architecture: AVR microcontrollers are based on a Reduced

Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architecture, which simplifies
instruction execution and enables faster and more predictable
performance.
2. Low Power Consumption: AVR microcontrollers are known for their
low power consumption, making them suitable for battery-powered
and energy-efficient applications.
3. Flash Memory: AVR microcontrollers typically feature on-chip flash
memory for program storage, which allows for easy reprogramming
of the device.
4. Harvard Architecture: AVR microcontrollers use a Harvard
architecture, which means they have separate instruction and data
memory spaces. This design enhances program execution speed.
5. Peripheral Integration: AVR microcontrollers often come with a
variety of built-in peripherals, such as timers, UARTs, SPI, I2C, and
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), which can simplify interfacing
with external components.
6. GPIO Pins: AVR microcontrollers have General-Purpose Input/Output
(GPIO) pins that can be configured for various digital and analog
functions, making them versatile for interfacing with different types
of sensors and actuators.
7. Development Tools: Atmel provides a range of development tools,
including an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) called
Atmel Studio, and a C/C++ compiler (AVR-GCC), to facilitate
software development for AVR microcontrollers.
8. Wide Range of Models: AVR microcontrollers come in various models
with different features and capabilities to meet the requirements of
a wide range of embedded applications.
9. Community and Support: Due to their popularity, AVR
microcontrollers have a large and active community of developers
and enthusiasts. This means you can find plenty of resources,
tutorials, and forums to help you with your AVR-based projects.
10. Availability: While AVR microcontrollers have been widely used
for many years, it's worth noting that technology evolves, and new
microcontroller families and architectures have emerged since their
inception. Make sure to consider the specific requirements of your
project and compare different microcontroller options before
choosing one.

Q4. what do you understand by A tmega 3287 in embedded system

Ans

1. Architecture: The ATmega328 is based on the AVR RISC

architecture, which is known for its simplicity and efficiency.
2. Flash Memory: It typically features 32KB of flash memory for
program storage, which allows you to program and reprogram the
device with your code.
3. SRAM and EEPROM: The microcontroller includes 2KB of SRAM
(Static Random Access Memory) for data storage and 1KB of
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
for non-volatile data storage.
4. Clock Speed: It can operate at different clock speeds, often up to
20 MHz, depending on the specific model and configuration.
5. Peripherals: The ATmega328 comes with various built-in
peripherals, including GPIO pins, timers/counters, UART (serial
communication), SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), I2C (Inter-
Integrated Circuit), and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
6. Low Power Consumption: Like other AVR microcontrollers, the
ATmega328 is known for its low power consumption, making it
suitable for battery-powered applications.
7. Development Tools: Atmel provides development tools like Atmel
Studio and AVR-GCC for programming and debugging ATmega328-
based projects.
8. Arduino Compatibility: The ATmega328 is notably used in the
Arduino Uno board, which has contributed to its popularity in the
maker and hobbyist community.
9. Community Support: Due to its widespread use, there is a large
and active community of developers and enthusiasts who create
libraries, tutorials, and resources for working with the ATmega328.

Q5. Explain Arduino in embedded system ?

Ans

Arduino is a popular open-source hardware and software platform

used in embedded systems development. It provides an accessible
and user-friendly way for both beginners and experienced
developers to create and prototype a wide range of embedded
projects. Here's an overview of Arduino in the context of embedded
systems:
1. Hardware: Arduino boards are the physical components of the
platform. They come in various models and sizes, but they all share
common features:
 Microcontroller: Each Arduino board is built around a
microcontroller, typically from the AVR family (like the ATmega
series) or other families (e.g., ARM-based boards).
 Input/Output (I/O) Pins: Arduino boards have digital and
analog I/O pins that allow you to interface with sensors,
actuators, and other external components. These pins can be
configured as inputs or outputs.
 Power Supply: Arduino boards can be powered via USB, an
external power supply, or a battery, depending on the model.
They often include voltage regulators for stable power.
 Communication Interfaces: Most Arduino boards include
communication interfaces such as UART (Serial), SPI, and I2C,
which facilitate connectivity with other devices.
2. Software: Arduino provides an Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) that simplifies the process of writing, compiling,
and uploading code to the Arduino board. The Arduino IDE supports
the Arduino programming language, which is based on C and C++.
 Libraries: Arduino offers a vast collection of libraries that
simplify interfacing with various sensors, displays, motors, and
communication protocols. These libraries save time and effort
when developing embedded projects.
3. Programming: Arduino code, known as "sketches," consists of two
essential functions: setup() and loop().
 setup(): This function is executed once when the Arduino
board starts up. It is typically used for initializing variables,
configuring pins, and setting up communication.
 loop(): The loop() function runs continuously after setup(). It
is where you place the main logic of your embedded system.
Code in this function is executed repeatedly, making it suitable
for tasks like sensor readings, control algorithms, and data
transmission.
4. Community: Arduino has a vast and active user community. This
community contributes to forums, tutorials, and open-source
projects, making it easier to find help and resources when working
on Arduino-based projects.
5. Extensibility: Arduino is extensible and supports a wide range of
shields and modules. Shields are additional boards that can be
 stacked on top of the main Arduino board to add functionality, such
as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and GPS.
6. Cross-Platform: The Arduino IDE is available for Windows, macOS,
and Linux, making it accessible to a broad audience of developers.
7. Applications: Arduino is used in a wide range of applications,
including home automation, robotics, IoT (Internet of Things)
projects, art installations, educational tools, and many more.

Q6.explain the function of each pin in arduino?

Ans

The functions of the pins on an Arduino board can vary depending

on the specific board model (e.g., Arduino Uno, Arduino Mega,
Arduino Nano) and the microcontroller used (e.g., ATmega328P,
ATmega2560). However, I'll provide a general overview of the
typical functions you'll find on most Arduino boards.
1. Digital Pins (D0-D13):
 These pins can be used for both input and output operations.
 They are capable of reading digital signals (HIGH or LOW) or
sending digital output signals (HIGH or LOW).
 Can be used for tasks like controlling LEDs, reading switches,
or interfacing with other digital devices.
2. Analog Pins (A0-A5 or more):
 These pins can read analog voltage values in the range of 0 to
5 volts.
 Useful for reading analog sensors like temperature sensors,
light sensors, and potentiometers.
 They are also known as ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) pins.
3. PWM Pins:
 Some digital pins on the Arduino boards support Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) output.
 PWM allows you to simulate analog output by varying the duty
cycle of the square wave signal.
 These pins are often labeled with a "~" symbol (e.g., ~3, ~5,
~6) and are used for tasks like controlling the brightness of
LEDs or the speed of motors.
4. Serial Communication Pins (RX and TX):
 These pins (usually labeled as RX and TX) are used for serial
communication with other devices.
 You can use them to communicate with a computer, other
Arduinos, or serial devices.
 They are essential for debugging and programming Arduino
boards.
5. Power Supply Pins:
 5V: Provides a regulated 5-volt power supply, typically used to
power external sensors and components.
 3.3V: Provides a regulated 3.3-volt power supply on some
boards.
 GND (Ground): Ground pins provide a reference voltage for
the circuit.
6. Reset Button and Reset Pin (RESET):
 The Reset button restarts the Arduino sketch.
 The RESET pin can be used to manually reset the
microcontroller or trigger a reset from an external source.
7. Crystal Pins (XTAL1 and XTAL2):
  These pins are used to connect an external crystal oscillator for
precise timing in some Arduino models.
8. I2C Pins (SDA and SCL):
 These pins are used for I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit)
communication, allowing your Arduino to communicate with
I2C devices like sensors and displays.
9. SPI Pins (MISO, MOSI, SCK, SS/CS):
 These pins are used for SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)
communication, often used with devices like SD cards,
displays, and other microcontrollers.
10. AREF (Analog Reference):
 This pin allows you to set an external reference voltage for the
analog-to-digital converter.

It's important to consult the documentation for your specific Arduino

board to understand its pin layout and capabilities, as there may be
variations between different models and revisions.