NAME: EGBE, Esosa Uyi

MATRIC NO: 190904057

COURSE: PSY 225 (Psychobiology)

ASSIGNMENT

FIRST QUESTION

List and explain with examples, the major neurotransmitters.

ANSWER

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that play a crucial role in communication

between nerve cells (neurons) in the nervous system. They transmit signals across synapses,

which are the tiny gaps between neurons. Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic

neuron, travel across the synaptic cleft, and bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic

neuron, thereby transmitting the signal.

There are several major neurotransmitters that have been identified, each with its own

specific functions and effects on the nervous system. Here are some of the most important

neurotransmitters along with their examples and functions:

1. Acetylcholine (ACh):

Function: ACh is involved in numerous processes, including muscle contraction, learning,

memory, and attention.

contract. It also plays a role in cognitive functions, such as memory formation. Alzheimer's

disease is associated with a deficiency of acetylcholine.

2. Dopamine:

Function: Dopamine is involved in the regulation of movement, motivation, reward, and

mood.

Example: Dopamine is released in the brain's reward pathway when we engage in pleasurable

activities like eating delicious food or receiving praise. It is also involved in movement

disorders like Parkinson's disease, where there is a deficiency of dopamine.

3. Serotonin:

Function: Serotonin regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and social behaviour.

Example: Serotonin plays a role in modulating mood and is often targeted by antidepressant

medications. It is involved in conditions like depression and anxiety disorders.

4. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA):

Function: GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system,

regulating neuronal excitability.

Example: GABA functions by reducing the activity of neurons, thereby promoting relaxation

and reducing anxiety. Drugs that enhance GABA activity, such as benzodiazepines, are used

as sedatives or anxiolytics.

5. Glutamate:
Function: Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in

learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity.

Example: Glutamate is critical for normal brain function and is involved in processes such as

long-term potentiation, which is essential for memory formation.

6. Norepinephrine:

Function: Norepinephrine regulates attention, arousal, and stress response.

Example: Norepinephrine is involved in the "fight-or-flight" response, triggering increased

heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness in response to a perceived threat.

7. Histamine:

Function: Histamine is involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles, appetite, and allergic

responses.

Example: Histamine is released during an allergic reaction and contributes to symptoms like

itching and inflammation. Histamine receptors are also targeted by antihistamine medications

to alleviate allergy symptoms.

8. Endorphins:

Function: Endorphins are involved in pain modulation and producing feelings of pleasure and

well-being.

Example: Endorphins are released during strenuous exercise, leading to the "runner's high"

and a reduction in pain perception.

These are just a few examples of the major neurotransmitters and their functions. The

intricate interplay of these neurotransmitters is essential for maintaining proper nervous

system function and influencing various aspects of behaviour, cognition, and emotion.
SECOND QUESTION

Identify the major divisions of the brain and their substructures.

ANSWER

The brain is a complex organ divided into several major divisions, each with its own distinctive

functions and substructures. Here is an explanation of the major divisions of the brain and their

substructures:

1. Telencephalon:

The telencephalon is the most anterior division of the brain and is derived from the

embryonic forebrain.

It consists of the cerebrum, which is responsible for higher cognitive functions, sensory

processing, and voluntary movements.

Substructures:

Cerebrum: The cerebrum is further divided into two cerebral hemispheres (left and right) and

is responsible for a wide range of functions.

Basal Ganglia: The basal ganglia are a collection of nuclei deep within the cerebrum. They

include the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus. The basal ganglia are involved in

motor control, reward, and decision-making.

Limbic System: The limbic system is a group of interconnected structures within the

telencephalon. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. The limbic system

plays a crucial role in memory, emotion, and motivation.

Olfactory Bulb: Located at the front of the brain, the olfactory bulb receives and processes

olfactory (smell) information.

The diencephalon is positioned between the telencephalon and the midbrain.

It consists of several structures involved in sensory processing, homeostasis, and hormone

regulation.

Substructures:

Thalamus: The thalamus acts as a sensory relay station. It receives sensory information

(except olfaction) from various senses and directs it to the appropriate regions of the cerebral

cortex for further processing.

Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and plays a crucial role in

maintaining homeostasis. It regulates functions such as body temperature, hunger, thirst,

sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, and emotional responses.

3. Mesencephalon:

The mesencephalon, or midbrain, is the smallest division of the brain and is positioned

between the diencephalon and the metencephalon.

It is involved in sensory and motor functions and plays a role in visual and auditory

processing, as well as the coordination of movement.

Substructures:

Tectum: The tectum is the dorsal portion of the midbrain and consists of two pairs of sensory

nuclei known as the superior and inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi are involved in

visual processing and orienting to visual stimuli, while the inferior colliculi are responsible

for auditory processing.

structures involved in motor control, pain modulation, and arousal. It includes the red

nucleus, which is involved in motor coordination, and the substantia nigra, which plays a role

in reward, movement, and Parkinson's disease.

4. Metencephalon:

The metencephalon is derived from the embryonic hindbrain and is located between the

mesencephalon and the myelencephalon.

It consists of two major structures: the pons and cerebellum.

Pons: The pons is a bridge-like structure that connects different regions of the brain. It plays a

role in relaying signals between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, regulating sleep,

respiration, and transmitting sensory information.

Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located behind the pons and is involved in motor

coordination, balance, and the fine-tuning of movements. It helps in maintaining posture and

executing smooth, coordinated movements.

5. Myelencephalon:

The myelencephalon, or medulla oblongata, is the most posterior part of the brainstem.It

regulates vital functions necessary for survival, such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure,

and reflexes.

Substructures:

Medulla Oblongata: The medulla oblongata controls essential bodily functions. It regulates

involuntary processes, including breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, and

reflexes such as coughing and vomiting.

metencephalon, and myelencephalon, represent different regions with distinct functions and

substructures. Understanding their organization helps to comprehend the complex operations

of the brain and its various regulatory systems.