UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM

THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIESIntroduction
The unit deals with the socio-political and economic
developments
from the early 16th to the late 18th centuries.
These developments contributed to the making of modern
Ethiopia
through different forms of social interactions and mixings.
Major developments of the period:
Expansion of trade
Muslim-Christian conflict and external interventions
Afar, Somali, Argobba, and Oromo population movements
Religious expansions, the interaction of people, and resultant
integrations
States and societies in Ethiopia and the Horn
The Gondarine Period (1636-1769), Zemene Mesafint (1769-
1855) including
the Yejju rule (1786-1853)5.1. Conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate
of Adal, and After
Revival of long-distance tradeMuslim vs. Christian
competition
and struggle over the control of trade routes.
Religion provided ideological justificationthe fact was
controlling
and exploitation of the peripheries.
This war lasted from 1529-1543.
Before the war, the Muslims faced internal strife and
disunities and
that called for new leadership.
Then Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, whose origin is
obscure,
came to power.Cont’d…
Born in Hubet between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga, he was
brought up by
Muslim kin on the route to Zeila.
He was a devout Muslim but served Garad Abun of Adal as a
soldier
before he assumed power.
Traditionally told that after the death of the Abun, he left for
the
countryside and started calling for devotion to Islamic
teaching.
After he assumed power things changed from the need to
control the
trade route to territorial annexation for the Afar and Somali
pastoralists.
The Muslim pastoralists had the need to expand to the
highland areas for
better pasture and water.Cont’d…
“Ahmed Gragn” organized the Afar, Harari, Somali, Harla,
Argoba
and other communities for a common objective and
conducted a
war over the Christian kingdom.
Settled their internal differences, mobilized to fight with the
Christian
kingdom, was also a guardian of Islamic doctrine from any
alien
teaching.
He got acceptance and consolidated his army to fight the
Christian
Kingdom.
This time, Libne Dengel was appointed at the age of eleven
from the
Christian kingdom.
In the Muslim-Christain confrontations, initially the
Christians were
victorious and managed to penetrate into the Muslim
territories.Cont’d…
Later, Gragn controlled Adal, refused to pay tribute to the
Christian
kingdom in 1520, and also conducted a military campaign in
1527.
Then he became victorious and controlled the states of Bali,
Dawaro,
Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata and putting the
Christian Kingdom
at risk.
By 1528, Libne Dengel mobilized a large army but failed to
withstand the
army of Gragn due tologistic problems and lack of a
common agenda.
Finally, the Christian army lost the Battle of Shumbura Kure
in 1529.
After this, the largest part of the Christian kingdom failed at
the hand of
Ahmed Gragn.Cont’d…
By 1535Ahmed Gragn controlled from Zeila to
Massawa.
He established a civil administration that constituted his
own men
and newly selected ones from the Christian territory.
Bati Del Womberathe most notable woman in the war.
She was the daughter of Imam Mahfuz and the wife of
Gragn and
encouraged her husband for revenge against the Christian
kingdom.
Through all these, Libne Dengel remained a fugitive until he
died in
1540.
Then Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) replaced him and
continued the
war with Muslims.Cont’d…
During this time, both sides began to get support from
external
worldMuslims from Turks and Christians from Portugal.
The Portuguese army was led by Christopher da Gama, the
son of
Vasco da Gama.
But again in 1542, the Christian army lost the war at Ofla in
Tigray, in
which around two-hundred Portuguese armies were killed,
and
Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
This time, Seblewongel, the wife of Libne Dengel was said to
have
participated in the war in 1542.
Then, Ahmed Gragn developed confidence in his army that
they can
push back any force to come but the Christian army remained
silent
and got prepared for the final offensive.Cont’d…
Finally, on February 25, 1543, Ahmed Gragn was defeated
and killed in
the war at the Battle of Woyna-Dega.
After this victory, Gelawdewos:
Restored all the northern possessions
Became tolerant of Muslims
Revived smooth relations with the Muslim world
Restored all the former territories and tributary states
Attempted to consolidate the state
Camped the chewa (regiments) in the border areas
By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong
Christian
Kingdom.
However, it was challenging to maintain dominance over
the Muslim
territories even later.Cont’d…
The Christian kingdom was challenged bythe retreating
soldiers of
the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, the Jesuit interlude,
and
the Oromo advance into the center.
The Adalites organized under Nur Ibn al Waazir Mujahid to
fight
against the Christian state for revenge.
In 1559, Gelawdwos was killed in a Battle with the armies of
Emir
Nur.
After Gelawdwos, Minas (r.1559-1563) succeeded and
assumed
power.
Defeated the Turks
Reclaimed the lost territories including DabarwaCont’d…
By the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted supporting the Turks
against the
reigning emperor.
But Sartsa Dengle (r.1563-1598) fought with internal and
external
forces during his time.
ExternalTurks
Internalthe Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya
and the Oromo.
The Turks were defeated in the north and territories were
regained.Consequences of the Muslim-Christian War:-
Human and material destruction
The easy success of the Oromos and domination of the
region
Cultural and social interaction-integration among people of
the
country
The Muslim-Christian world competition over the Red Sea
and the
Indian Ocean supremacy
The weakening of the power of the EOC and the
destruction of
properties
brought religious controversies with in the EOC5.2. Foreign
Intervention and Religious
Controversies
During the war with the Muslim Sultanates, the Christian
rulers
made an alliance with the Roman Catholics to secure arms.
In 1557catholic missionaries with their bishop,
Andreas de
Oviedo, came to expand the religion
The Jesuit missionaries came with a different doctrine to the
EOC
about the nature of Christ.
The EOC accepts the unionthe divine and human nature
of Christ
is inseparable.Cont’d…
Key Catholic missionaries Priests of the periodJoao
Bermudez,
Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, and Alfonso Mendez
The missionaries first approached Gelawdewos …
unsuccessful.
he defended the teachings of EOC in a document… Confession
of
Faith
The Catholics succeeded with Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) but his
period
was short for the Jesuits to influence.
Later, Za-Dengel was deposed by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-
7) who
also was challenged by Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
Provincial leaders refused to pay tribute to Susenyoshe
integrated the Oromos with the government army and
Susenyos
sought for an alliance, which he got through the diplomatic
advisory
of Pedro Paez……wise and successfulCont’d…
By 1612, Susenyos was converted to Catholicism
1622announced it to be the state religion.
Different reforms were made:
Reconsecration of the Orthodox priests and deacons
Rebaptism of the mass
Suspension of Old Testament customsmale circumcision
and the observance of the Sabbath
Prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez
Prohibition of fasting on Wednesday and Friday
Prohibition of respect for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of
Covenant (Tabot)
The Emperor ordered:
eating pork
The use of Latin Mass and Gregorian Calendar
Finally, the emperor faced a challenge from including his son,
Fasiledas
(1632-67) Cont’d…
This resulted in religious controversy and the loss of many
peasants’ lives.
Finally, by 1632, Susenyos resigned in favor of his son,
Faselidas, and he:
Reversed Catholicism
Restored the position of the EOC as the state religion
Expelled the missionaries
Punished local converts
Introduced a close-door policy to the west but opened his
door to the east
Only James Bruce (1769) and Charles Jacques Poncet (1700)
visited Ethiopia
from the west during this time.
From the influence of the Catholics, three doctrinal
differences emerged within
the EOCTewahedo/Hulet Lidet (divinity and
humanityunited); Qibat
eternal birth and Holy Ghost anointment; Sost Lidetborn
through Grace, born
to the womb of Mary, and anointed by Holy Ghost.5.3.
Population Movements
Reasons for the population movement:
Push and pull factors
Natural and social factors
In search of resources and better living conditions
In Ethiopia and the Hornconflict, drought, and
demographic factors
During the medieval period, the effects were:
People integration
Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
Intermingling of people.
Specific result of the period:
Intermarriage of peoples, change of residence, an original
culture, and
evolution of new identities. 5.3.1. Population Movements of the
Argoba, Afar,
and Somali
This partly resulted from the Muslim-Christian conflict of the
late
15th to early 16th centuries.
Environmental pressure was also another factor as the area
was
located through which the trade route passes and was affected
by
conflicts.
The people had been oscillating in response to the conflict in
the
region.
Trade was a major agent of Islamic expansion and Muslim
state
formations.A. The Argobba
The Sultanate of Shewa moved eastward to escape the
influence of
the Christian kingdom.
Then the Sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argobba were
dominant,
became the center of Islamic resistance.
Towards the beginning of the war of Ahmed Gragn, the
Argobbans
joined armies with Afar and Somali.
Due to its strategic location, Argobba became the center of
conflict
between Muslims and Christians.Cont’d…
Hence, the conflict resulted in the destruction of the state
and the
dispersion of the people.
The lasting effect of the conflict can be observed from the
fragmented settlement patterns of the people.B. Afar
Before the 16th century, they had pushed as far as the
Middle Awash
due to drought.
Trade route also passed through their territory connecting
the Horn.
Then it became the center of competition over trade routes.
They were also actors in the conflict but they also dispersed
in a
different directions due to the conflict.
Their pastoral economy helped them to survive the
disastrous warC. Somali
Located on the main trade route
Before the Muslim-Christian wars of the 16th century, they
faced an
environmental challenge in the area.
This contributed to the population movement that also
became a
strong force behind the military strength of Ahmed Gragn.
However, after 1543, with the defeat of Ahmed Gragn, they
returned
back home and their influence did not last long.5.3.2. Gadaa
System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-
1618)A. The Gadaa System
Strongly contributed to the Oromo population movement
and
expansion
The socio-political institution through which the people
organize
themselves, defend their territories, administer their affairs,
maintain
law and order, and manage their economies.
This system constitutes elements of Democracy like period
election,
fair representation, and power-sharing to prevent one-man
rule.
It is also an agent of socialization, education, maintaining
peace, and
social cohesion.
It organizes the people into age-grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic
responsibilities.Cont’d…
In the system, ten age grades and five classes operated in
parallel. Cont’d… →
Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the
assembly), Abba-Dula
(war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge),
Abba Sa'a (father of
treasury)
and
other
councilors
.
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
Resulted from the natural and man-made factors
Natural demographic and environmental change
Man-madeMuslim-Christian war to leave their
homeland for
other areas.
After interruption for nearly two generations Gadaa was
revitalized.
the Oromo were organized into the Borana and Barentu
confederacies at Madda-Walabu…Chaffe (assembly) and seat of
the
senior Qallu in 1450.
Oromo armies advanced to the north between Mount
Walabu and
Lake Abaya, then westward to Bilatte River, to the south, and
then
turned north to the Lakes Region of the Rift Valley.Cont’d…
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated the Christian
regiment Batra Amora led
by Fasil and occupied Bali
Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of the Awash River.
Kilole (1538- 46) controlled Dawaro after defeating the
Christian regiment Adal
Mabraq while Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
Michille (1554-62) scored a victory over Hamalmal's
force at Dago, and Jan Amora
forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahidin at Mount
Hazalo.
Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina
and Wayyata; occupied
Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint, etc.
Robale (1570-78) fought with the army of Sartsa Dingil
and first lost the battle at
Wayna Dega in 1574 but later recovered and defeated the army
of Zara’a Yohannis.
Birmaji (1578-86)controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama
to Wolaqa, and
overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
Mul’ata (1586-94)seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat,
Dambiya and Tigray.
In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602),
Melba (1603-10), and
Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of
the Horn of Africa
while others like the Warday moved to Kenya, Bur Haqaba,
and Majertin in Somalia.Cont’d…
In the course of their movement into various regions,
different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centers. For instance:-
Oda Nabee of Tulema ; Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda
Bultum of Itu
Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha, Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha,
Oda Gayo of
Sabbo-Gona, Oda Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda
Hulle of Jimma,
Oda Garado of Waloo, etc. became major Gadaa centers.
Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra
of Guji, Makko-Bili
of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma, and others established
Gadaa centers and
laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,
which helped them to
form sisterhood and solidarity.
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious
Diversities
Interaction and integration across religion and ethnicity.
The Oromo population mov’t brought an end to the Muslim
Christian War and southward expansion of the Christian
kingdom.
:The Oromo integrated non-Oromo → two adoption
mechanism:-
Guddifachaadoption of a child by a foster parent where
the child
enjoys
equal
rights
and
privileges
with
a
biological
child.
Moggasa adopted non-Oromos where the adopted groups
gained both
protection and material benefits
The process significantly contributed to social cohesions,
national
integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern, and
Western Regions
The Easterners
Somali :_Historically, a council known as shir governed the
society.
The decision making process was highly democratic.. all-
adult male were
allowed.
the guurti (a council of elders) was the highest political
council mandated
with resolving conflict and crisisCont’d…
Afar:_ established sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah,
Rahaito
and Gobad.
Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in
the middle
Awash.
in 1577… Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to
Awsa.
At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily
ended in
conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded
ascension to
the throne.
The Sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafo
around
1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty.---
Awsa’s economy mainly depended on Bati-Ginda’e trade route.
Later it became
center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfire.
Argobba_Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient.
Two versions on the origin of the people of Argoba.
The first version holds that they descended from the
followers of the Prophet
Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
The second version claims that the origin of the Argoba is
not related with
Muslim-Arab immigrants. More plausibly, the Argoba are one
of the ancient
peoples in the region that accepted Islam very early from
religious leaders who
came from ArabiaThe Emir of Harar:_ during the reign of Emir
Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled
city..
→
In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62)
established a
dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half…
strengthened by
Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94).
→
1875-1885 Egyptians controlled the emirate for nearly a decade.
→
Amir Abdulahi--- the last emir of the Sultanate for two years
conquered in1887
by Emperor Menilek’s expansion-defeated at -Chalanqo
Other States
The Central and South CentralShewa, Gurage, Kambata,
and Hadya.
The SouthernersSidama, Gedeo, and Konso
The SouthwesternersWolayta, Kafa, Yem, Gamo, Dawuro,
and Ari
The WesternersBerta and Gumuz, Anywa, Nuer, Majang,
the Kunama5.6.The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
This began during Sartsa-Dengel when the political center
moved to
the Gondar area and established Royal Camp at Enfranz in
1571.
Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar in
such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz, and Azazo.
Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his
political
seat there.
Gondar became glorious during the first three
rulersFasiledas
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82), and Iyasu I (r.1682-
1706).Major Developments of these periods:
The restoration of the Orthodox Church as the state religion,
The establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni,
The establishment of a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis
Alem
by Yohannes I and his councils, and
Land reformthe introduction of land measurement,taxes,
customs, and revision of the Fetha Negest by Iyasu I.
Iyasu the Great was assassinated and this led to political
instability
and the poisoning of the reigning emperors.
1706-1721five
reigning
kings
including
Iyasu
were
assassinated/poisonedCont’d…
Tekle-Haymanot, the son of Iyasu the Great, was appointed
in 1706
but was also assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos in 1711, who was also
poisoned
and replaced by Dawit III, again poisoned and replaced by
Bakafa in
1721.
Bakafa, with the support of his wife- Etege Mentewab, tried
to
restore stability but was unsuccessful since he was
incapacitated in
1728.
The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement
of the
Oromo in Imperial politics and the army as will be discussed
shortly.Cont’d…
From 1728 to 1768, Mentewab and her brother, Ras-
Bitwaded Walda
Le’ul (1732-1767), dominated the Gondarine court politics.
Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-
55) and Iyoas
(1755-69).
After his death in 1767, Mentewab was challenged by Wubit
Amito of
Wollo, and invited Mikael Sehul of Tigray who was politically
shrewd and
militarily powerful.
Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but
refused to return
to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas.
This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement
by an old man
Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el.
Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-
Haymanot II
(1769-77) in power.
This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint
(1769-1855).B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two
centuries.
In many instances, it repeated the Aksumite and the Lalibella
achievements in the areas of architecture, painting, literature,
trade,
and urbanization.5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-
1855)
The period when actual political power was in the hands of
different
regional lords.
Covers the period from the assassination of Iyoas in 1769 to
the coming
to power of Tewodros II in 1855.
Ras Michael Sehul became a kingmaker, however, failed
short of
popularity among the mass due to his evility.
Then coalition of armed forces from Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta
and Wollo
fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
After his defeat, there was relative stability but several
regional lords
emerged where the main centers were Tigray, Semen,
Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam, and Shewa.Cont’d…
This time, the “Yejju dynasty”, which was founded by Ali
Gwangul
(Ali I or Ali Talaq) in 1786, was the leading power with the
center at
Debre-tabor.
The Yejju Dynasty reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso
(r.1803-
1825) who fought with Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and
Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated
Hayle
Mariam Gebre of Simen.
Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in
1827.
Zemene Mesafint was ended by Kasa Hailu of Qwara
through a
series of battles that lasted from the 1840s to 1855.Major
features of Zemene-Mesafint
Absence of effective central government;
The growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
Rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker;
Establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political
interests;
Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door”
policy.
Developments in terms of literature, arts, architectur