UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES

FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
(10 HOURS)
 5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom
and the Sultanate of Adal, and the Aftermath
The first half of the sixteenth century was arguably
the most turbulent period in the history of Ethiopia
and the Horn. The principal events which occurred
at the time and left lasting imprints in the socio-
political map of Ethiopia were
the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal,
the Oromo population movement and
the Jesuit interlude.
o The chronic conflicts spanning over two centuries,
primarily to control the long distance trade route
passing through Zeila and levy tribute, became a
war of conquest which attained its climax between
1529 and 1543.
o The war between the two rivalling powers assumed
a new momentum with the emergence of new
leadership in the Adal Sultanate under Imam Ahmed
ibn Ibrahim al­Ghazi, whose origins are obscure.
o In most Christian sources, he is called "Gragn" (the
left­handed). He was probably born in Hubat
(between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga) in 1506 and was
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases
o He began his military career as a soldier in the
service of Garad Abun ibn Adash.
o Garad Abun competed with Sultan Abu Bakr ibn
Mohammed for more power and influence in Adal
politics.
o Garad Abun was killed in a fierce battle against Abu
Bakr in 1525, after which Imam Ahmed assumed
the leadership of the opposition against the sultan.
o Under his command, the opposition's influence
expanded, and he formed a formidable army that
ultimately overthrew and killed Abu Bakr in 1527.
After the imam's rise to power, the battles were fought
not just for control of the long-distance trade route, but
also and mainly to solve environmental pressure on
the Afar and Somali pastoralists, who were pushing
towards Harar and into the riches of the highland
Christian Kingdom.
Lowland Muslim pastoralists wanted to expand to
high plateaus for better and more pastureland because
of increased population and overgrazing.
This led to the intensification of the longstanding
conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
principalities while at the same time resulting in
fighting among the pastoralist groups.
A hallmark of Imam Ahmed's leadership ability was such
that he mobilized the Afar, the Somali, Argobba, Harla,
Harari and many others for a common cause.
The imam had the support of religious leaders in his
effort to bring peace among the various fighting groups.
He persuaded the groups not to fight amongst themselves
but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and
resolve their pressing material needs and at the same
time gain salvation by fighting non­Muslims.
Thus, the war for territorial expansion came to assume a
religious character.
After a long and thorough preparation of the army, the
imam launched his offensive against the frontier defenses
of the Christian Kingdom in 1527 and controlled Bali,
Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata.
This was partly facilitated by the significant presence there
of Muslim communities, who welcomed the Muslim
governors appointed by Imam Ahmed.
Realizing the rising threat, Emperor Lehne-Dengel
mobilized a vast force from his domains in 1528 and
encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis
Ababa.
However, his numerically superior force was dispersed by
Imam Ahmed's small army at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in
1529, near present-day Mojo.
o In addition to logistical problems, the leadership of
the army of the Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a
common strategy to defeat Adal's force.
o On the other hand, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated
but small-sized army faced no such logistical
challenges.
o The imam's army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics
with a unified command.
o After the victory, Imam Ahmed's army pressed on farther
north to complete the takeover of the kingdom.
o Within a span of less than two years, his army successfully
gained control over Lasta, Bagemedir, Dembiya, and Tigray.
o By 1535, Adal had dominion over a significant portion of
the Christian territory, including strategic regions.
o As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam
Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy
composed of his own men and newly recruited personnel
from the Christian territories.
o Mahfuz's daughter and Imam Ahmed's wife, Bati (also
known as Batya) Del Wanbara, who had encouraged her
husband to wage the war in order to avenge the death of her
father, accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions
as far north as Tigray.
The military setback forced Lehne-Dengel to
retreat, finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive.
His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-59),
continued to face a more intensified war as Imam
Ahmed had received two hundred Muslim Turkish
musketeers and ten cannons in 1541.
 In the meantime, in response to an earlier request
made by Lebne-Dengel to King Joao III of Portugal
in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers led
by Christopher da Gama, the son of Vasco da Gama,
and armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian
court in 1541.
The Portuguese governor of India who dispatched
the army wanted to rescue what Portugal then
considered a strategic ally in its war in the Red Sea
against the Ottoman Empire.
However, the Portuguese were defeated at the battle
of Wafla in the present day southern Tigray in
August 1542.
Christopher was captured and killed-maybe even
beheaded-by Imam Al:imad.
The surviving soldiers finally joined Gelawdewos in
Semen in October and continued to fight in his
army.
After his victory at Wafla, Imam Ahmed was so
confident about his army's ability to repulse any
future attack by the Christian force that he sent his
musketeer allies back home and let his army camp.
In February I 543, a battle occurred between his
army and that of Emperor Gelawdewos at Zantara
(Woyna Dega), east of Lake Tana, in which Imam
Ahmed was killed.
His death marked the end of the Adal conquest and
its territorial control of the Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom.
Soon after the battle, Emperor Gelawdewos restored
the former Christian kingdom's territories in the
northern and central plateau in less than two years.
Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to
him as he was astoundingly tolerant towards them.
He attempted to reorganize the chewa regiments
which he stationed in the frontier regions.
Neverthless, his spirited endeavor to restore the
administrative and military stamina of the weakened
Christian kingdom met a final blow in 1559.
 He was killed in a battle and beheaded by Emir Nur
Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid of Adal, who thus avenged
the death of Imam Ahmed.
Although the Adal threat, which cannot survive the death of
its able leader Imam Ahmed, was neutralized, the Christian
kingdom was soon challenged by foreign powers in various
forms.
Emperor Minas (r.1559-63) conducted military campaigns
against the Turkish-backed Bahre Negash Yishaq, the most
powerful regional lord of the time, and reclaimed territories
in the coast, including Dabarwa.
As Minas died in 1563, the challenge from Yishaq and the
Turks was carried over to his successor.
Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), who defeated Turkish
forces in 1587/89, neutralized Bahre negash Yishaq and won
back the territories from the Turks.
Although the Turkish threat was overcome militarily, the
Portuguese presence brought yet another crisis, what is
The consequences of the conflict for both sides were
far-reaching.
One of the most obvious was the huge human and
material cost.
It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and
Christian Kingdom were weakened, thereby paving
the way for the success of the Oromo population
movement.
On the positive side, linguistic and religious
interactions were accompanied by intermarriages
among various cultural groups.
 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious
Controversies
 The Portuguese and Ottoman interventions in the affairs of the
country reflected their competing political ambitions around the
Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
 However, an actual military alliance between Portugal and the
Christian kingdom did not take place since Ethiopia was not a
naval power to give meaningful maritime support to Portugal
against the Ottoman Turks.
 After the conflict, the EOC as an ideological arm of the state was
weakened and sought revival.
 At the same time, the monarchy could not count on the
traditional political and military apparatus.
 As a result, the rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have
regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to
o The attempts to establish diplomatic and military relations
between Portugal and the "Kingdom of Prester John," first
under King Manuel I (1495-1521) and later under Joao III
(1521-1557), saw several representatives of the Portuguese
power visit the Ethiopian royal court.
o This was followed by the arrival of several Jesuit
missionaries in Ethiopia in 1557 to expand Catholicism.
o The Jesuits taught the Catholic doctrine of two different and
therefore separate natures of Christ-divine and human-
which was contrary to the tewahedo theology of the EOC.
o The EOC taught that Christ, through union or tewahedo,
had a perfect human nature inseparable from the divine. The
leading members of the mission who played key roles in
efforts to evangelize the country included Joao Bermudez,
Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, and Alfonso Mendez.
The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor
Gelawdewos hoping that the rest of the society would follow
suit.
Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with
the missionaries.
He defended the teachings of EOC in a document entitled the
Confession of Faith.
The Jesuits were not active in the courts of Minas and Sertse-
Dengel, who were not only hostile against their evangelical
efforts but also too busy dealing with other internal and
external challenges.
The Jesuits, under the mission of Pedro Paez, had relative
success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to
have been sympathetic to Catholicism.
However, he was overthrown by Yaeqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-
o Susenyos (r. 1607-32), aiming to consolidate his
power, strengthened the military regiments by
introducing new Oromo recruits from those Oromo
groups who had settled across the core and fertile
regions of the kingdom.
o However, he was challenged by the provincial
governors as well as rebellions by the active fighting
Oromo, Bete-Israel, and other groups.
o Thus, to consolidate his power all over the kingdom,
he sought for an external alliance, which he got
through the diplomatic support of Paez.
o Susenyos converted to Catholicism in 1612 and
announced it to be the state religion in 1622.
 In the meantime, several anti-Catholic voices emerged
following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.
 Even worse, with the monarch's consent, another Spanish
Jesuit, Mendez, ordered reconsecration of the EOC priests and
deacons, and rebaptism of the masses.
 Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament
customs such as male circumcision and the observance of the
Sabbath.
 Additional injunctions included prohibition of preaching in
Ge'ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for
Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant.
 Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork and the adoption of the
Latin Mass and the Gregorian calendar.
 The reforms led to revolts led by the clergy and the nobility.
 Even loyal followers of the emperor, including his own son
 The Jesuits' success in their mission to convert Ethiopia to Catholicism
was short-lived and met with staunch anti-Catholic resistance, leading
the country into a state of civil war and the threat of political
disintegration.
 In June 1632, a large number of peasants lost their lives in one day battle
alone.
 Finally, Emperor Susenyos abdicated in favor of his son Fasiledes, who
restored the EOC.
 Fasiledes took serious measures against the Jesuits, most of them being
expelled from the country.
 He also punished local converts, including Susenyos' brother and the
most fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos, and Azazh Tino,
the Oromo Catholic convert, who was a court intellectual, royal
chronicler and councillor of Emperor Susenyos.
 Fasiledes introduced a "closed-door" policy, which isolated the country
from all Europeans for about a century and a half until the beginning of
the nineteenth century, with the exception of the visits by a French
pharmacist, Charles Jacques Poncet, and a Scottish traveler, James
Yet, the Jesuit intervention had lasting ramification
as it triggered further doctrinal divisions and
controversies within the EOC, which came to be
divided into disputant sects and reached its peak
during the Zemene- Mesafint.
The tewahedo doctrine teaches hulet lidet (two
births) of Christ:
first in eternity as a Divine Being, the eternal birth,
and
second born again from St. Mary into the world as a
perfect man and perfect divinity united in one
nature.
It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
Qibat (Unction) initially branched off from the hulet lidet
doctrine and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of
Christ, but claimed that at his incarnation, when he was
born into the world, Holy Spirit anointed him.
 This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
Sost Lidet (Three Births) (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace)
taught that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being,
was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by
Holy Spirit, when he was born into the world.
 This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shewa.
The doctrinal divisions, which usually took on regional
forms, persisted until the Council of Boru Meda (1878),
when tewahedo was accepted as the official doctrine of the
EOC.
 5.3. Population Movements
Population movements that occurred on varied
scales have played important roles in shaping the
history of the Horn.
 People moved from place to place due to pull and
push factors, which can be summed up as natural
and social causes that could be attributed to the
region's enduring socio­political conditions.
 The medieval population movements had extensive
effects including peoples intermingling resulted in
change of the original culture and evolution of new
identities.
 5.3.1.Population Movements of the Argobba,
Afar, and Somali
Although pressure on the environment was
generally a major factor in population movements,
the population movement of the Argobba, Afar and
Somali was partly caused by the military conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of
Adal in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth
centuries.
Argobba: there are two versions on the origin of the
Argobba. The first holds that they descended from
the followers of the Prophet Muhammad who came
and settled in Ifat.
The second claims that the Argobba are not Muslim-
Arab immigrants as they are one of the ancient
peoples that accepted Islam very early from
religious leaders that came from Arabia.
They were major agents oflslamic expansion and
state formation in the Horn.
For instance, the Makhzumite and Walasma
Dynasties established the Shewan and Ifat sultanates
respectively, in which the Argobba were dominant.
o Afar: The Afar lived predominantly in northeastern
Ethiopia and northern Djibouti; but some have
inhabited southern Eritrea.
o The Afar had an indigenous governance system
known as makabanto, which has some democratic
features.
o The Afar are first mentioned by the Arab geographer
Ibn Said (1214-86), who described them as
occupying the lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb.
o Drought forced the Afar to move eastwards until they
reached the middle Awash by the sixteenth century.
Even though they were actors in the conflict, the
Christian-Muslim conflict forced the Afar to move in
 The Somali: the Somali practiced pastoral economy and led
a nomadic life for centuries, possibly in search of sufficient
pasture. Historically, a council known as shir governed the
society.
 The decision-making process was highly democratic, with
all adult males allowed equal participation. These councils
at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing
structure that enforced law and administered justice. The
council ruled on wide-ranging affairs including resource
allocation, marriage, trade and crime. A component of shir,
the guurti (council of elders), was the highest political
council mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.
 5.3.2.Gadaa System and Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)
The Gadaa System
 The Gadaa system was an institution, through which the Oromo organized
socially, administered their affairs, defended their territories, and managed their
economies.
 At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the system was fully functional,
which makes it reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the Gadaa
system long before. Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar suggest that
the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization.
 In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, five Gadaa periods or
forty years represented one generation, and nine generations represented an era.
 The earliest eras of Gadaa, which still remains obscure, Was that of Bidiri
Dhoqqe. Prior to the institution of the prevailing Gadaa Borana-Barentu at
Madda Walabu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed through eras known as
Teya, Tesa, Munyo, Suftu, Madille, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warden. Gadaa was
interrupted and restored during many eras because of various internal and
external factors.
The Gadaa system constituted elements of
democracy such as periodic succession every eight
years and power sharing to prevent one-man rule.
Other principles of the system included
representation of all lineages, clans and
confederacies.
It also served as a mechanism for socialization,
education, the maintenance of peace and order, and
social cohesion.
The Luba group assumed power for eight years. The
head of the government,
 Abba- Gadaa Fite (literally "father of the period"), was
assisted by several elected representatives.
 These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
 Abba Mati (in charge of ada/culture),
 Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
 Abba Dula (war leader),
 Abba Sera (father of law),
 Abba Alanga Gudge),
 Abba Sa'a (father of treasury), etc.
 The Abba Muda (senior Qallu) played vital roles in
power transfer and legitimizing the ruling Gadaa class.
Women formed sisterhood and solidarity groups and
maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution.
Women from childhood to old age, i.e.
guduru (pre-pubescent),
qarre (adolescent),
kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and
 cifire (wives of Gadaamojji above 80 years) were
believed to have sacred power. They were involved
on occasions like arara (conflict resolution), guma
(blood compensation), rakoo (marriage
commitment), etc.
The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
The factors for the Oromo movement are both natural
and man-made.
Natural factors include demographic increase and
consequent need for extra land to accommodate the
growing human and livestock population.
 In addition, the Christian-Muslim conflict from the
thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries might have
pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the
lands they had inhabited for other areas.
As a result, the Oromo organized under the Borana and
Barentu confederacies and began moving northward
from their common Gadaa center, Madda-Walabu.
The Oromo movement took place from 1522 to
1618 under twelve successive Butta wars of
successive Gogessa/Gadaa classes.
Accordingly, the Melba (1522-30) fought and
defeated the Christian regiment Batra Amora led by
Fasil and occupied Bale while the Mudena (1530-8)
reached the edge of the Awash River.
The Kilole (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after
defeating the Christian regiment, Adal Mabraq,
while Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
The Michille (1554-62) scored victories over the
Christian commander, Dejjazmach Hamalmal at Dago,
and the Jan Amora forces as well as the Adal force led by
Emir Nur at Mount Hazalo.
The Hambisa/Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas' force at
Qacina and Wayyata, occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
Emperor Sartsa- Dengel 's cavalry led by Azazh Halibo
defeated Robale Gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Dega in
1574, but Robale recovered and defeated the force of
Azmach Zara'a Yohannis, chief of the Christian
dignitaries.
The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed
Jama to Weleqa and overwhelmed Azmach Deharegot's
army. The Mul'ata (1586-94) seized Bizamo, Damot,
The Dulo (1594-1602),
Melba (1603-10) and
Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern
parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the
Warday moved to Kenya, and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia.
In due course, Oda Nabee of Tulama,
Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
Oda Bultum of Itu­Anniyya and Qal'o,
Oda Bisi! of Mecha and
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa
centers.
 5.4. Ethnic and Religious Interaction and
Integration
 While territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom and
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church diffused Christian tradition from north
to the south,
 the wars of Imam Ahmed and
 the population movements of the Argobba, the Afar and the Somali
caused the expansion of Islam into the Christian kingdom.

• The Oromo population movement brought far-reaching changes to the

socio-political map of Ethiopia and the Horn.
• First, it enabled the Oromo to control large territories in the region.
• Their advance continued unchecked by the imperial military regiments.
• Second, it led to the integration of people of diverse backgrounds into
Oromo society and the integration of Oromo society into other
communities.
Within the Gadaa system, the Oromo applied two
socialization mechanisms:
 Guddifacha and
 Moggasa. Guddifacha was the adoption (fostering)
of a child, who would enjoy equal privileges with a
biological child.
Likewise, Moggasa was a system of amalgamation
of groups into a clan through an oath of allegiance,
with all the rights and obligations that such
membership entailed.
 Third, the interactions resulted in the exchange of institutions. A
number of people in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted the
Gadaa system and the Oromo language.
 Similarly, the Oromo adopted the traditions of the people with
whom they came into contact.
 A case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems by the Gibe
Oromo states, and the integration of the Oromo into the Christian
kingdom's political system, both at the expense of the Gadaa
system, without abandoning their basic cultural and linguistic
markers.
 It is important to mention the rise of Oromo political elites,
warlords, land-owning nobles (Oromo balabats) and regional
dynasties as a result of integration within the Ethiopian state.
 Military service, patrimonial, and political alliances were the three
major avenues for Oromo integration into the establishments.
 The processes continued well into the Gondarine period, the
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central,
Southern and Western Parts of the Region
Besides, the discussion of these peoples and states
in a separate section does not mean that they had no
connection with peoples and polities in nmthern half
of the country.
The various peoples and states of the region
maintained relations through various avenues of
contact such as long-distance trade.
 5.5.1 Peoples and States in the East
The Emirate of Harar
o During the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a
walled city.
o Emir Ali ibn Da'ud (r. 1647- 62) founded a new dynasty
that ruled the Emirate for over two centuries and a half.
o It was later strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur
(1783-94).
o The Amir's council, Maj/is, supervised the mosque land
called waqf, and assisted the Amirs. The Amirs would
gradually extend their authority over the surrounding
Afar, Argobba, Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-
marriage, and Islamic teachings.
5.5.2.Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa
The kingdom of Shewa was founded by Negasi
Kristos (r. 1696-1703), originally from the district of
Gera Meder in Menz.
Claiming lineage from Abeto Yaqob, son of Emperor
Lebne­Dengel, he is traditionally considered the
founder of the Shewan branch of the "Solomonids."
After establishing his ascendancy, he presided over
the Christian communities that inhabited districts like
Asendabo, Debadebo and Makfud. Negasi also
formed alliance with the Argobba Muslims who lived
in the lowlands of Yifat.
The second king was Merid Azmatch
Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r. 1703-18).
Abuye/Abiyye (r. 1718-45) made Haramba his capital
and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he
was killed by the Karrayu Oromo.
However, it was Amaha Iyesus/Amhayyes (r. 1745-75),
the great grandson of Negasi, who asserted effective
leadership in the whole districts (Bulga, Efrata, Menz,
Tegulet etc.).
 His capital was at Doqaqit but later shifted to Ankober.
Asfa-Wosen (r. 1775-1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo,
Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda.
Shewa's economy was mainly based on agriculture,
supplemented by trade and craft.
 Gurage
 The Sebat Bet Gurage, classified as the Western Gurage, included
Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gurner, Inamor, Endegegn/Enner and Gyeto.
 The other major Gurage group, classified as the Northern Gurage, is
variously known as Kistane, Aymalal or Soddo.
 Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano, and Masqan. The
Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over
centuries: Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet and Gordanna Sera
among the Kistane.
 Yet, there was no centralized leadership. Power was vested in descent,
clan or lineage groups that displayed corporate rights, obligations, and
influence.
 The Gurage leaders also held the title of abegaz or azmatch
combining political and military authority. The staple crop in Gurage
is enset.
 Silte
 Local traditions confirm the movement of notables like Hajji
Aliye from the areas around the Chercher highlands in eastern
Ethiopia with large number of followers chiefly the Silte
before the sixteenth century.
 These people settled in the south and western parts of Ethiopia
during the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the
Adal sultanate as well as the Oromo population movement.
 In the Silte highland areas, the cultivation of enset was the
predominant staple crop while cereals constituted the base for
peasant subsistence in the lowland parts. Khat and berbere
(red pepper) remained the two major cash crops in the area
although local merchants were also involved in the buying
and selling of coffee, mainly from the highland parts of
Sidama and Shewa as of the nineteenth century.
 Hadiya
The origin of the Hadiya state goes back to the thirteenth
century.
Hadiya's population became more heterogeneous after the
wars between the Christian Kingdom and Adal, and the
Oromo population movement, chiefly the latter. Among
others, descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced among
the Oromo, Sidama, Qabena and Halaba, and the Hadiya
proper with its sub­groups: the Mareko, Lemu, Soro,
Shashogo and Badowacho.
Despite sporadic clashes, Hadiya's relation with the
Christian state was largely stable, particularly after the
marriage of Emperor Zara-Yaqob to the Hadiya princess
Ite Jan Zela, more famously known as Queen Elleni.
 Kambata
 Four communities of separate origin (the Kambata in the narrow
sense, the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro) coalesced to form the
nucleus of the state of Kambata by about 1550-70.
 This process of state formation was further assisted by Omotic and
Semitic peoples who moved into the region at different times.
 The groups who called themselves Kambata related to one of the
seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) at the end of the sixteenth
century.
 The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the
Hambericho Council that had seven members, each representing the
seven clans. The council ruled Kambata with a king at the top. The
people were enset cultivators, sharing similar culture and speaking the
same language, Kambatissa.
 Halaba
 The Halaba inhabited the territory between the Bilate River
and Lake Hawasa. At the apex of the irtdigenous
administration was the Woma (king) and below him were
clan or village leaders.
 The Halabi Ogete, an assembly of village leaders, handled
societal matters such as disputes between clans. The
traditional administrative and judicial system functioned
based on Sera, which constituted the laws and values of the
society.
 The Halaba economy was largely based on subsistence
agriculture and raising of livestock. The main cash crops
included red pepper, maize and teff. Halaba's principal
center, Kolito, was once a principal market place.
 5.5.3.Peoples and States in the South
Sidama
 The Sidama indigenous system of governance was led by the Mote
(king), who exercised political authority in consultation with the
council of elders called Songo. Meanwhile, the Woma handled ritual
matters such as offering sacrifices to spirits, circumcision and
marriage.
 Sidama society was divided into generation sets called Luwa. It had
five grades: Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa, each
lasting eight years.
 Each class had its own leader named gaden, who settled disputes
and handled the defense of the society. The Sidama sera governed
social life based on the moral code, ha/ale (the ultimate truth),
which was used to administer justice. Ha/ale had no enforcement
mechanisms, but people abided by its rules to avoid curse or
ostracization by the society. Enset and coffee are important food and
 Gedeo
 The dominant tradition traces the ancestry of the Gedeo to Daraso,
who was the older brother of Gujo, the father of the Guji Oromo.
 The seven major Gedeo clans descended from the seven sons of
Daraso and were grouped in two houses:
 the shale batte (senior house), consisting of four clans, and
 the sase batte Uunior house), containing three clans.
 The Gedeo had a traditional governance system called balle, which
was based on age classes and ranking having seven grades with a 10-
year period each creating a 70-year cycle. Sasserogo was a federation
of three territories: Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing one Abba
Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new
holder from the next age set. The Gedeo economy was mainly based
on enset cultivation.
 Konso
 The Konso practiced a balanced, integrated and specialized
agricultural technology.
 They also adopted soil conservation techniques, notably the
construction of terraces, which converted rugged and hilly
areas into permanent cultivation.
 Konso's economy also depended on bee-keeping and crafts.
 The Konso lived in walled villages (pa/etas) which were
further divided into wards called kanta until the late
nineteenth century.
 Each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota
who were selected through the direct participation of the
adult males. Membership to the council was not hereditary
but rotated every eighteen years.
 5.5.4.Peoples and States in the Southwest
Wolayta
The Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre dynasties successively
ruled Wolayta kingdom from the thirteenth to the late
nineteenth centuries.
The state flourished in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries because of the successful wars that
the Wolayta fought against their neighbors, and the
material, human and territorial gains thereof.
At the apex of the hierarchy was the kawo (king),
assisted by advisors' council. Wolayta land grew a large
variety of crops but the dominant food crop was enset.
Access to land was governed by kinship and political and
social status.
 Yem
 Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-
Gamma ruled Yem from its tunta (palace) in Dudarkema
(Zimarma) near Oya.
 Its last amno (king), Oyokam/Ammo Dasha was ousted
from power in the fourteenth century. This was followed by
the establishment of a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa),
with its center at Angari.
 Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the amno
acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity.
 The amno had a council of twelve advisors called astessor.
Below them were the erasho and the gagna, provincial and
district governors, respectively. The Yem had traditions of
digging bero (ditches) for protection. They erected nearly
fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the state center, Brisi
 Dawuro
Dawuro was inhabited by three major clans: Malla,
Dogolla, and Amara.
The Kawuka dynasty created a big state from a great
number of petty chieftainships on the territory
between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east
and south and the Kafa high mountains in the west by
about 1700.
Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were famous Kawuka
rulers.
Dawuro is known for defensive stone fortifications.
The livelihood of the Dawuro was based on mixed
agriculture.
 Garno
o The Garno inhabited the area stretching from Lakes Chama and Abaya to
the Gughe Mountain and beyond.
o A set of interrelated indigenous laws called woga defined land use. The
cultivation of enset was central in geze (highlands) while maize and sweet
potato were staple food crops in bazo (lowlands).
o Pottery, tanning and metalworking were additional subsistence modes.
o From the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, the scattered Garno
settlements were organized in politically autonomous villages called dere
sharing essential features:
 1) kawo (hereditary ruler), who also offered sacrifices and symbolized the
people's unity;
 2) initiates called halaqa; and
 3) assembly site called dubusha, where communal matters were discussed
and disputes resolved.
o Through initiation or election, the d.ulata (assembly) elected married men
as leaders called huduga/maga while baira was based on genealogical
 Ari
o The Ari society was organized into ten independent
clans headed by a hereditary chief known as babi,
who was assisted by godimis (religious leaders), zis
(village heads) and tsoikis (intelligence agents).
o The chief exercised both political and ritual power
over his respective domain.
 Kafa
 The kingdom of Kafa emerged in the fourteenth century but
became prominent after the middle of the seventeenth
century under the Minjo dynasty that had close contact with
Enarya, from where the royal title, tato (king), and
Christianity were introduced.
 The tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called
the Mikrecho.
 The political center of the kingdom was Andaracha.
 Kafa's economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
 The major trade items from Kafa were ivory, gold, slaves,
coffee, honey-wax and civet musk. Kafa had a tradition of
digging deep trenches (erio) as defensive barrier.
 5.5.5.Peoples and States in the West
Anywa
o The Anywa predominantly inhabited along Pibor,
Sabat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro and Alwero
Rivers in and around Gambella.
o Local traditions attribute the origin of the southern
Anywa state to a certain founding father called
Oshoda.
o The other Anywa had a governance system whereby
each village lived under a chief called kuaari, who
with the assistance of the nobles (nyiye) managed
the distribution of farm and grazing fields and
settled disputes.
 Majang
o Linguistic evidence traces the Majang's origin to the
Boma plateau in South Sudan.
o Gradually, their settlement extended to areas near
Dembi-Dollo in the north.
o The Majang practiced shifting cultivation, animal
husbandry, beekeeping, hunting and fishing.
 Nuer
The Nuer lived in areas that extended across the
savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the
Upper Nile of the Sudan.
They had been largely settled in the plains of
Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers, and in a
large area of the Sudan since the nineteenth century.
The Nuer had an age-set system combining social
and political functions.
Nuer boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a
series of rites connected with it before they were
initiated into adulthood.
 Berta and Gumuz
The Berta and Gumuz inhabited the area around the
lower course of the Abbay and had a long­standing
trade contacts with northern Sudan that resulted in
strong Islamic influence.
Gold deposits of these areas had attracted others for
long.
 Kunama
 The Kunama, also called the Baza, are one of the ancient
inhabitants of western Eritrea on the Gash, and Tekkeze Rivers
and northwestern and western Tigray.
 The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene
entrusted with the administration of the society, granting
asylum to newcomers and performing rituals as part of
reconciliation process in cases of homicide.
 Its office was held by male members and transmitted
hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next born through
matrilineal line.
 Agriculture is based on the use of hoe, spades, sickles and ox
(camel)-drawn plough. The staple crop of the Kunama is kina
(sorghum). Other crops are borta or beca (millet), pulses and
afokina (maize). The Kunama also keep livestock, mainly
 5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-
Mesaflnt
5.6.1.The Gondarine Period (1630-1780s)
Political Developments
The Gondarine period, which lasted for some 130
years, can be sub-divided into three periods, based
on political and cultural criteria.
These are foundation and glory (1630-1706),
insecurity (1706-1720), and
revival and steady decline (1720-1780s).
Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar at places like Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
Finally, Gondar was founded as a permanent capital in
1636 by Emperor Fasiledes. The emperor selected Gondar
as his royal capital for the purpose of directly supervising
the collection of customs on the Red Sea- Lake Tana-
Enarya route.
It was also near the main caravan route from Mettema to
Lake Tana, joining the route from Enarya to the Red Sea.
The mountains that formed a semi-circle around the town
also afforded protection. Its location was also at
considerable distance from the malaria in the lower
regions of Lake Tana.
Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of Fasiledes
(r.1632-67), and Iyasu I (r.1682-1706 with the throne name
of Adyam Saggad), also known as Iyasu the Great.
Fasiledes established the royal capital, restored the
Alexandrian faith, and expelled the Jesuits. However,
Gondar's remarkable period of glory was that of Iyasu I.
He managed to restore the state's control over a large
territory. He obtained the vassalage of Musa, the Naib of
Massawa, and he was the last emperor based at Gondar to
reach as far as Enarya in the Gibe region in 1704.
He also stretched the symbolic presence of the state in Tigre
and Shewa. He also introduced customs, and undertook tax
and land reforms. As such, he is considered as the last
powerful emperor before the rise of Tewodros II in the
modern period.
A period of insecurity commenced in 1706, when Iyasu
the Great was assassinated by a faction spearheaded by
his own son, Tekle-Haymanot.
With this assassination, a period of instability began,
characterized by intrigues and poisoning of reigning
monarchs.
Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death
of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in
1708.
Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was
also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who
himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakkafa in 1721.
All these events transpired within the context of
factionalism, regionalism and religious controversies.
o The Gondarine period showed signs of revival with
the ascendancy of Bakkafa in 1721. He tried to
restore stability by strengthening the army units,
most of which were recruited from among the
Oromo units.
o He also benefited from the political wisdom of his
esc01t, Etege Mentewab, also known as Berhan
Mogasa, who became leader of the dominant
political faction after he was incapacitated after
1728.
 However, Gondarine politics witnessed a period of decline after
1730.
 Three regionally based political factions emerged, all aiming to
control the power of the ras bitwedded (effectively the king-
maker).
 These were the qwaregnoch, headed by Etege Mintewab and her
kins from Qwara,
 the Oromo faction from Wallo led by Iyoas's maternal uncles,
and
 the Tigray faction led by Ras Mikael Sehul.
 In a way, Etege Mentewab was the architect of all these factions.
 Everything started when she arranged a political marriage
between Wubit, a woman born to an Oromo family in Wallo,
with her son Iyasu II (1730-1755). Iyoas, the outcome of the
marriage, took power in 1755 and invited his maternal uncles to
the royal court, which they began to dominate.
o To counterbalance the dominance of the Oromo
faction, Mintewab invited Ras Mikael Sehul from
Tigray to Gondar.
o The powerful Tigrean lord killed Iyoas and
enthroned Yohannes II, marking the trimph of
regional lords over the monarchy.
o It should be noted that ethnic identity wielded
minimal sway over the political upheavals in
Gondar, with regional identity assuming greater
significance. The primary contenders were engaged
in a power struggle to dictate to the emperor and
attain the prestigious designation of ras bitwedded
("king maker").
Cultural Achievements of the Gondarine Period
Despite the enduring and notorious political
turbulence, Gondar has bequeathed to history a
multifarious and illustrious legacy.
 It was a center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art_and crafts for more than
two centuries.
Gondar set the cultural ethos of the region and
witnessed several cultural developments. The
cultural achievements led some writers to describe
the period as the Ethiopian Renaissance.
Architecture: Gondarine kings built impressive
secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences,
bath, library, towers and fortifications.
Many churches with different shapes were also built.
In the city's most impressive compound, known as
Fasil Gebbi, there were several palaces built by
Emperor Fasiledes, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III,
Bakkafa and Queen Mentewab.
Gondarine architecture could be said to have started
during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengel, who
built his castle at Guzara, near the town of Enfraz at
about 1586.
Painting: the period also saw a wealth of religious
paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments,
weapons and other accessories.
The churches built by Queen Mentwab were notable
for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
The distinctive style of Gondarine art has been
given special recognition by Ethiopian art
historians.
Literature: the imperial and provincial scriptoria
produced a great number of manuscripts.
Besides the Gospels,
the Miracles of Mary,
the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies,
many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were
also produced.
There was a rich tradition of book­making. Gondar
is also known for its music and poetry.
 Trade and Urbanization: Gondar also has the distinction of
establishing the first daily market in Ethiopia.
 The city became the residence of diverse foreign communities:
Iberian (Portuguese and Spanish), Indian, Greek and Armenian.
 It had an estimated population of 60,000-70,000. It served as
religious center of Christians, Muslims and the Bete Israel.
 Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(residence of the abun and echege) until the middle of the nineteenth
century.
 Many churches served as education centers, which comprised three
levels:
 Nebab Bet (Reading school),
 Qedasse Bet (Liturgy school) and higher schools, namely
 Zema Bet (Music school),
 Qene Bet (Poetry school), and
 Metsehaf Bet (interpretation of holy books). Its churches were also
 5.6.2.The Zemene- Mesafint (Era of Princes,
1786-1853)
The Zemene- Mesafint was a period of political
decentralization, i.e.
the increase of power of regional lords,
following a period of political and cultural
prosperity.
This period is often dated between 1786 (the ascent
to power of Ras Ali I, the founder of the Yajju
Dynasty), and 1853 (the defeat of the last of the
Yajju princes, Ras Ali II, at the Battle of Ayshal by
Dajjach Kasa Haylu (the future Emperor Tewodros
II).
The process of the erosion of royal power was
initiated by Ras Mika'el, who deposed King Iyoas in
1769.
He then started taking strong measures against the
nobility, which made him highly unpopular because
of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara,
Lasta and Wallo defeated him at the battle of
Sarbakussa in 1771.
Then, several influential war lords evolved over the
main political regions: Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wallo, Damot, Mecha and
Gojjam.
Among these, the most powerful group was the Yejju
(Warraseh) dynasty from Yejju.
From its base at Debre Tabor, it controlled the emperors
in Gondar for some seven decades.
 Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso
(r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras
Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis
Woldu of Agame.
His son Yimam (r.1825-8) defeated Hayle-Mariam
Gebre of Simen in 1826.
Marye, another son of Gugsa (1828- 1831) and
Sabagadis fought at the Battle of May Aslamay (Dabra
Abay) in 1831; both of them were killed even if it was
Major features of Zemene- Mesafint include:
 changes in the interregional balance of power from central authority
to a decentralized or multi-centered political structure;
 reduction of the emperor's office to that of a puppet king who reigned
but did not rule;
 conflicts among regional rulers and warlords over the control of the
emperor in Gondar;
 Christological factions resulting in the divison of the Church;
 decay of "classical" Gondarine culture like Ge'ez literature, painting,
architecture etc.
 the decline of the military regimental system, the emperor thereby
being forced to rely on his lords for military suppo11;
 peaceful consolidation of some areas as independent princedoms such
as Shewa;
 growing contacts of regional lords with different foreign powers and
making and unmaking of fragile coalitions and allainces to advance
On the other hand, the Zemene- Mesafint also witnessed other
developments. These include-
 The emperor remained a symbol of political unity and source of
legitimacy;
 The Yejju elites were keen to preserve the unity and territorial
integrity of the kingdom;
 Despite their strength, the regional lords only vied to be king-
makers, and did not try to ascend the throne themselves, keeping
alive the myth of "Solomonic" dynasty in Gondar;
 Diversification of powers and political centres resulted in the
multiplication of courtly culture which was previously limited to the
royal court;
 The influence of different regional and ethnic cultures broadened the
cultural diversity of Ethiopia, fuelling cultural change;
 The internal struggle of the period contributed to the emegence of
independent kingdoms which later spearheaded the unification of
Ethiopia.