Lecture #3

Evolution of OS:
1. Mainframe Systems
Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs Automatic job sequencing – automatically transfers
control from one job to another. First rudimentary
operating system. Resident
monitor
 initial control in monitor
 control transfers to job
 when job completes control transfers pack to monitor
2. Batch Processing Operating System:
 This type of OS accepts more than one jobs and these jobs are batched/ grouped together according to their
similar requirements. This is done by computer operator. Whenever the computer becomes available, the
batched jobs are sent for execution and gradually the output is sent back to the user.
 It allowed only one program at a time.
 This OS is responsible for scheduling the jobs according to priority and the resource required.
3. Multiprogramming Operating System:
 This type of OS is used to execute more than one jobs simultaneously by a single processor. it increases CPU
utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one job to execute.
 The concept of multiprogramming is described as follows:
 All the jobs that enter the system are stored in the job pool( in disc). The operating system loads a set
of jobs from job pool into main memory and begins to execute.
 During execution, the job may have to wait for some task, such as an I/O operation, to complete. In
a multiprogramming system, the operating system simply switches to another job and executes.
When that job needs to wait, the CPU is switched to another job, and so on.
 When the first job finishes waiting and it gets the CPU back.
 As long as at least one job needs to execute, the CPU is never idle.
Multiprogramming operating systems use the mechanism of job scheduling and CPU scheduling.
3. Time-Sharing/multitasking Operating Systems
Time sharing (or multitasking) OS is a logical extension of multiprogramming. It provides extra facilities such as:
 Faster switching between multiple jobs to make processing faster.
 Allows multiple users to share computer system simultaneously.
 The users can interact with each job while it is running.
These systems use a concept of virtual memory for effective utilization of memory space. Hence, in this OS, no
jobs are discarded. Each one is executed using virtual memory concept. It uses CPU scheduling, memory
management, disc management and security management. Examples: CTSS, MULTICS, CAL, UNIX etc.
4. Multiprocessor Operating Systems
Multiprocessor operating systems are also known as parallel OS or tightly coupled OS. Such operating
systems have more than one processor in close communication that sharing the computer bus, the clock and
sometimes memory and peripheral devices. It executes multiple jobs at same time and makes the processing
faster.
Multiprocessor systems have three main advantages:
 Increased throughput: By increasing the number of processors, the system performs more work in less time.
The speed-up ratio with N processors is less than N.
 Economy of scale: Multiprocessor systems can save more money than multiple single-processor systems,
because they can share peripherals, mass storage, and power supplies.
 Increased reliability: If one processor fails to done its task, then each of the remaining processors must pick
up a share of the work of the failed processor. The failure of one processor will not halt the system, only
slow it down.

The ability to continue providing service proportional to the level of surviving hardware is called graceful
degradation. Systems designed for graceful degradation are called fault tolerant.
The multiprocessor operating systems are classified into two categories:
1. Symmetric multiprocessing system
 2. Asymmetric multiprocessing system
 In symmetric multiprocessing system, each processor runs an identical copy of the operating system, and these
copies communicate with one another as needed.
 In asymmetric multiprocessing system, a processor is called master processor that controls other processors
called slave processor. Thus, it establishes master-slave relationship. The master processor schedules the jobs
and manages the memory for entire system.
5. Distributed Operating Systems
 In distributed system, the different machines are connected in a network and each machine has its own
processor and own local memory.
 In this system, the operating systems on all the machines work together to manage the collective network
resource.
 It can be classified into two categories:
1. Client-Server systems
2. Peer-to-Peer systems
Advantages of distributed systems.
 Resources Sharing
 Computation speed up – load sharing
 Reliability
 Communications
 Requires networking infrastructure.
 Local area networks (LAN) or Wide area networks (WAN)
.
6. Desktop Systems/Personal Computer Systems
 The PC operating system is designed for maximizing user convenience and responsiveness. This system is
neither multi-user nor multitasking.
 These systems include PCs running Microsoft Windows and the Apple Macintosh. The MS-DOS operating
system from Microsoft has been superseded by multiple flavors of Microsoft Windows and IBM has
upgraded MS-DOS to the OS/2 multitasking system.
 The Apple Macintosh operating system has been ported to more advanced hardware, and now includes new
features such as virtual memory and multitasking.
7.Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)
 A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a multitasking operating system intended for applications with fixed
deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile
engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale computing
systems.
 The real time operating system can be classified into two categories:
1. hard real time system and 2. soft real time system.
 A hard real-time system guarantees that critical tasks be completed on time. This goal requires that all
delays in the system be bounded, from the retrieval of stored data to the time that it takes the operating
system to finish any request made of it. Such time constraints dictate the facilities that are available in hard real-
time systems.
 A soft real-time system is a less restrictive type of real-time system. Here, a critical real-time task gets
priority over other tasks and retains that priority until it completes. Soft real time system can be mixed with
other types of systems. Due to less restriction, they are risky to use for industrial control and robotics.
Lecture #4
Operating System Services
Following are the five services provided by operating systems to the convenience of the users.
1.Program Execution
The purpose of computer systems is to allow the user to execute programs. So the operating system
provides an environment where the user can conveniently run programs. Running a program involves the
allocating and deallocating memory, CPU scheduling in case of multiprocessing.
2. I/O Operations
Each program requires an input and produces output. This involves the use of I/O. So the operating
systems are providing I/O makes it convenient for the users to run programs.
3. File System Manipulation
The output of a program may need to be written into new files or input taken from some files. The
operating system provides this service.
4. Communications
The processes need to communicate with each other to exchange information during execution. It may
be between processes running on the same computer or running on the different computers. Communications
can be occur in two ways: (i) shared memory or (ii) message passing
5. Error Detection
An error is one part of the system may cause malfunctioning of the complete system. To avoid such a
situation operating system constantly monitors the system for detecting the errors. This relieves the user of the
worry of errors propagating to various part of the system and causing malfunctioning.
Following are the three services provided by operating systems for ensuring the efficient operation of
the system itself.
1.Resource allocation
When multiple users are logged on the system or multiple jobs are running at the same time, resources
must be allocated to each of them. Many different types of resources are managed by the operating system.
2. Accounting
The operating systems keep track of which users use how many and which kinds of computer
resources. This record keeping may be used for accounting (so that users can be billed) or simply for
accumulating usage statistics.
3. Protection
When several disjointed processes execute concurrently, it should not be possible for one process to
interfere with the others, or with the operating system itself. Protection involves ensuring that all access to
system resources is controlled. Security of the system from outsiders is also important. Such security starts with
each user having to authenticate him to the system, usually by means of a password, to be allowed access to the
resources.

System Call:

 System calls provide an interface between the process and the operating system.
 System calls allow user-level processes to request some services from the operating system which process
itself is not allowed to do.
 For example, for I/O a process involves a system call telling the operating system to read or write particular
area and this request is satisfied by the operating system.

The following different types of system calls provided by an operating system:

 Process control
 end, abort
 load, execute
 create process, terminate process
 get process attributes, set process attributes
 wait for time
 wait event, signal event
 allocate and free memory
File management
 create file, delete file
 open, close
 read, write, reposition
 get file attributes, set file attributes
Device management
 request device, release device
 read, write, reposition
 get device attributes, set device attributes
 logically attach or detach devices
Information maintenance
 get time or date, set time or date
 get system data, set system data
 get process, file, or device attributes
 set process, file, or device attributes
Communications
 create, delete communication connection
 send, receive messages
 transfer status information
attach or detach remote devices