SVKM’s NarseeMonjee Institute of Management Studies

School of Law
Program: B.A., LL.B. (Hons.) 8101 & B.B.A., LL.B. (Hons.) 8102
Semester: II
Module: Journalism & Mass Communication

Unit II Theories of Communication

By
Ms. Bhoomika Ahuja
Assistant Professor
Theories of Communication
Topic Details:
• Models of Communication: SMR model, SMRC model, Shannon and
Weaver model, Laswell model, Osgood model, Dance model,
Schramm model. – (1 hr)
• Normative theories Authoritarian, Libertarian, Social Responsibility,
Soviet Communism, Totalitarian – (1 hr)
• Other Media Theories Hypodermic Needle Theory, Twostep and
multistep Theory, Spiral of Silence, gratification theory, cultivation
theory, Maslow’s hierarchy needs theory etc. – (1 hr)
Introduction to Normative theories
• Normative theories were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and
Wilbur Schramm in their book called “Four Theories of the Press”. At first the
word “Normative Theory” was pronounced in USA during the height of ‘cold war’.
Often it called as western theories of mass media.
• A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled
and operated by the government, authority, leader and public. These theories are
basically different from other communication theories because normative
theories of press are not providing any scientific explanations or prediction.
• At the same these “four theories of the press” were came from many sources
rather than a single source. Sometimes media practitioners, social critics and
academics also involved to develop these normative theories.
• Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and the
Government than press and the audience. These theories are more concern
about the ownership of the media and who controls the press or media in the
country.
Authoritarian Theory
• This theory along with the invention of printing press was born in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. This places superiority over the government which
rules the country. According to this theory the mass media, though not under the
direct control of the State and the ruling classes, must do their bidding.
• Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are under the
control of the governing elite or authorities or influential bureaucrats.
Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to protect and prevent the
people from the national threats through any form communication (information
or news).
• The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s power in the country rather
than any threats. The authorities have all rights to permit any media and control
it by providing license to the media and make certain censorship.
• If any media violate the government policies against license, then the authority
has all right to cancel the license and revoke it. The government have all right to
restrict any sensitive issues from press to maintain peace and security in the
nation.
Authoritarian Theory
• The press and other media are expected to respect authority, to be always
subordinate to established power and authority, and therefore should
avoid offending the majority or dominant moral, political and economic
values. Journalists lack independence and freedom; their reports have to
be submitted for advance censorship.
• This censorship is justified on the ground that the State must always take
precedence over an individual’s right to freedom of expression.
• Such censorship is more rigidly enforced in times of war and during
‘internal’ and ‘external’ emergencies.
• It needs to be noted that both dictatorial a democratic regimes resort to
such authoritarian control of the media. The strictness with which the
Official Secrets Act is enforced in Britain and in India is a case in point.
Authoritarian Theory
Censorship:
• Censorship is a suppression of any communication which may consider as harmful to the
people, King, government and its nation. Especially these censorship methods are much
familiar in press which against the freedom of speech and freedom of expression. In
some other cases, the censorship helps to protect the rulers and authorities from
sensitive issues.
• Here, Journalist or any media persons should not have any rights to comment, discriminate or
stand against the government. Sometimes, an authority gives considerable freedom to minority
thoughts and cultural issues to promote them if it doesn‟t make any threats to authority or ruler.
• King – King is the authority, who has all rights to control the communication and no one can
question against the king.
• Dictatorship – During the world war II Hitler and Mussolini are the two major authorities who
controlled the press in Germany and Italy. Press was under the control of the authority and No
press can‟t question against or publish against these two dictators.
• Few countries blocked wiki leaks website from its country to maintain the internal security
because the wiki leaks are not ready to compromise with government censorship and realising
classified documents against the government.
Authoritarian Theory

This image illustrates an example of the Authoritarian theory of media control, where censorship and the manipulation of
information were common. The specific context here relates to the era of Joseph Stalin's rule in the Soviet Union.
The Image Context: Nikolai Yezhov, once a close associate of Stalin and head of the NKVD (the Soviet secret police), was
purged and executed in 1940 during Stalin's reign. After his execution, Yezhov's image was removed from photographs to
erase him from official history, reflecting Stalin's efforts to rewrite or censor historical records for political purposes.
Relevance to Authoritarian Theory: The authoritarian model emphasizes absolute control by the ruling authority over media
and communication. This includes censorship, suppression of dissent, and propagandistic manipulation to ensure that only
information aligned with the state's ideology is shared with the public. The editing of Yezhov out of the photograph is a
visual representation of this practice.
Libertarian Theory
• Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm’s go on to
explain the libertarian theory, which is also called the free press theory. In
contrast to the authoritarian theory, the libertarian view rests on the idea
that the individual should be free to publish whatever he or she likes.
• Its history traces to the 17th century’s thinker John Milton, who asserted
that human beings inevitably choose the best ideas and values. In the
libertarian system, attacks on the government’s policies are fully accepted
and even encouraged.
• Moreover, there should be no restrictions on import or export of media
messages across the National frontiers. Moreover, journalists and media
professionals ought to have full autonomy within the media organization.
Libertarian Theory
• Libertarian theory is based on the fundamental right of an individual to
freedom of expression, which is regarded as main legitimating principle for
print media in liberal democracies. In its simple form, it prescribes that an
individual should be free to publish what he or she likes, it is thus extension
of other rights to hold opinions freely, to express them, to assemble and
organize with others.
• The free press theory needs no elaborations as is evident from the first
amendment to the American constitution, which states that ‘congress shall
make no law abridging the freedom of speech or the press, it is thus simply
an absolute right of the citizen’. But the application of the press freedom
has hardly been straightforward. Milton, Stuart Mill and many others
argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening good morals
and the authority of the state, it must be restrained.
Libertarian Theory
• The Libertarian theory is one of the “Normative theories of press”. The theory which is originally
came from libertarian thoughts from 16th century in Europe. The libertarian theorists are against
the authoritarian thoughts.
• International trade and urbanization undermine the power of a rural aristocracy which leads
various social movements raise includes the Protestants reformation, that demands individual’s
freedom and their own lives and free thoughts.
• Liberalism means information is knowledge and knowledge is power. Libertarianism is free from
any authority or any control or censorship. The libertarianism is an idea of individualism and
limited government which is not harmful to another. Libertarian theory sees people are more
enough to find and judge good ideas from bad.
• The theory says people are rational and their rational thoughts lead them to find out what are
good and bad. The press should not restrict anything even a negative content may give knowledge
and can make better decision whilst worst situation.
• The libertarian thoughts are exactly against or opposite to the authoritarian theory which means
the authoritarian theory says “all forms of communication works under the control of government
or elite like king”.
Libertarian Theory
• Example: Wiki leaks website published all sorts of confidential or
restricted files in public space and especially classified documents.
These articles are providing brief knowledge about the government
and its activities which helps people to identify what is happening in
the society and its gives great choices to elect a better president in
future. Sometimes these documents may work against the
government and its authority that is why most of the country is not
willing to allow libertarian thoughts because it may affect their power
and kingdom.
Social Responsibility Theory
• In mid20th century most of the developing countries and third world nations have used
this social responsibility theory of press which is associated with “the Commission of the
Freedom of Press” in United States at 1949. In the book “Four theories of Press” (Siebert,
Peterson and Schramm) it’s been stated that “pure libertarianism is antiquated, out
dated and obsolete.” That paved way for replacement of Libertarian theory with the
Social responsibility theory.
• Social responsibility theory allows free press without any censorship but at the same
time the content of the press should be discussed in public panel and media should
accept any obligation from public interference or professional selfregulations or both.
The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and libertarian theory because it gives
total media freedom in one hand but the external controls in other hand. Here, the press
ownership is private. The social responsibility theory moves beyond the simple
“Objective” reporting (facts reporting) to “Interpretative” reporting (investigative
reporting).
• The total news is complete facts and truthful but the commission of the freedom press
stated that “No longer giving facts truthfully rather than give a necessary analysed or
interpretative report on facts with clear explanations”.
Social Responsibility Theory
• The theory helped in creating professionalism in media by setting up
a high level of accuracy, truth, and information. The commission of
press council also included some tasks based on social responsibility
of media, which are as follows:
• 1. Formulate the code of conduct for the press.
• 2. Improve the standards of journalism.
• 3. Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist.
• 4. Criticize and make some penalty for violating the code of conduct
Social Responsibility Theory
The theory allows:
• 1. Everyone to say something or express their opinion about the media.
• 2. Community opinion, Consumer action and professional ethics.
• 3. Serious invasion of recognized private rights and vital social interests.
• 4. Private ownership in media may give better public service unless
government has to take over to assure the public to provide better media
service.
• 5. Media must take care of social responsibility and if they do not,
government or other organisation will do.
Social Responsibility Theory
• Print media by the turn of this century had passed through a phase of yellow
journalism. In the atmosphere of a multimedia society, developed a theory of a
free but responsible press.
• An outgrowth of libertarian theory, this philosophy places responsibility over the
free press.
• The press inspite of having a right to criticize the government has certain basic
responsibilities to maintain the stability of society.
• Social responsibility consciousness saw several professional associations like the
Society of Newspaper Editors, Society of Professional Journalists etc to exercise
self restraint in order to keep up the high standards of journalism.
• Within the frame work of open and free criticism, professional choice and
guidelines for responsible action on the part of members of the press lies the
social responsibility theory
Social Responsibility Theory
• The social responsibility theory is an extension of the libertarian theory in
that the press recognizes that it has the responsibility to society to carry
out its essential functions.
• The social responsibility theory ascribes basically the same six functions to
the press as the libertarian theory.
• Providing information, discussion and debate on public affairs.
• Instructing and informing the public to make it capable of selfgovernment
• Protecting the rights of the individual against the government through its watchdog
function
• Maintaining the economic equilibrium of the system by bringing together buyer,
seller, and advertiser.
• Providing entertainment
• Remaining independent of outside pressures by maintaining its own economic
selfsufficiency.
Social Responsibility Theory
• The basic principles of the social responsibility theory uphold conflict resolution
through discussion; there is high regard for public opinion, consumer action, and
professional ethics and jealous guard over private rights and important social
interests.
• This theory emerged in the United States in the twentieth century, and it is
evidenced today in the Anglo-American nations. The social responsibility theory is
based on the assumption that media serve essential functions in society.
• Therefore, it should accept and fulfill certain obligations to the society. These
obligations are to be met by setting high professional standards in
communication of information, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance. In
accepting and discharging these obligations, the media should be selfregulatory
within the framework of law and established institutions.
• In the public interest, the media should underplay that news which might lead to
crime, violence, and social tension or cause offence to ethnic or religious
minorities. The media should be pluralist, should reflect the diversity of their
society and allow access to various points of view including the right to reply.
The Soviet communist/workers theory
• After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with new political system based on the MarxistLeninist
principles. The newly formed communist party by Lenin shows much interest in the media which serves to the working
class in the country and their welfares.
• So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel ideology is called “Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media Theory”. The same
theory was developed and followed by Adolf Hitler‟s Nazi in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy. Soviet media
theory is imitative of Leninist principles which based on the Carl Marx and Engel‟s ideology.
• The government undertake or controls the total media and communication to serve working classes and their interest.
Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of people. They put end to the private
ownership of the press and other media.
• The government media provide positive thoughts to create a strong socialized society as well as providing information,
education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The theory describe the whole purpose of the mass media is
to educate the greater masses of working class or workers.
• Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to create interests towards the media. According
to authoritarian theory, the media controlled and censored by the ministries in the country but libertarian is fully free
without any intervention of any authority or government, Social responsibility theory – press freedom in one hand but
other hand they controlled the press by raising question and Soviet media theory, the whole control of the media is
under the leader of the nation.
The Soviet communist/workers theory
• The Soviet communist/workers theory is closely tied to a specific ideology; the
communist. Siebert traces the roots of this theory back to the 1917 Russian Revolution
based on the postulates of Marx and Engels. The media organizations in this system were
to serve the interests of the working class and not intended to be privately owned.
• The mass media in the Soviet model are expected to be self-regulatory with regard to the
content of their messages. Also, the Soviet theory differs from the authoritarian theory in
that the media organizations have a certain responsibility to meet the wishes of their
audience.
• Still the underlying standard is to provide a complete and objective view of the world
according to Marxist – Leninist principles.
• Today, the name of this theory is only of historical interests. Beginning in the mid-
eighties and continuing after the fall of the Soviet Union, Russia has performed a mass
media model closer to the social responsibility principle.
The Soviet communist/workers theory
• The Soviet Theory is also called as the Communist media theory. Just as the social responsibility theory is an
outgrowth of the libertarian theory, sovietcommunist theory is an outgrowth of the authoritarian theory.
However, whereas according to the authoritarian theory the press resides outside the government, in the soviet
media theory is to ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist system and to promote the
objectives of the soviet socialist party.
• This system is found mainly in the Soviet Union and other communist countries. Russian media was reorganized
after the revolution of 1917 and this theory is derived mainly from basic tenets of Marx and Engles. It envisages
media to be under the control of the working class whose interest they are meant to serve.
• Private ownership of the press or other media is ruled out. The media must serve positive functions in society
relating to information, education, motivation, and mobilization. They must support progressive movements in
the country and abroad. The media according to this theory are subject to the ultimate control of the state and
are integrated with other instruments of political life. Within these limits, the media are expected to be self
regulatory.
• They must
• Act with responsibility
• Evolve and follow norms of professional conduct, and
• Respond to people’s needs and aspirations.
• The media as per this theory are not subject to arbitrary interference as in the case of the authoritarian theory.
 Totalitarian Theory
• The Totalitarian Theories of Communication are derived from the political structure of
totalitarian regimes, where the government exercises absolute control over every aspect of
life, including communication and media. These theories explain how communication is
utilized as a tool for propaganda, control, and repression in such regimes.
• Key Features of Totalitarian Theories of Communication:
• 1. State Control Over Media: All media and communication channels are owned or controlled by the
state. There is no independent press; everything must align with the ideology and objectives of the
ruling regime.
• 2. Propaganda as a Tool: Media is used to disseminate propaganda to manipulate public opinion and
enforce loyalty to the state. Information is often biased, exaggerated, or falsified to maintain the
regime's narrative.
• 3. Censorship and Suppression: Strict censorship is imposed to eliminate dissent and alternative
viewpoints. Opposition voices are silenced, and criticism of the regime is punished.
• 4. Centralized Communication: A central authority dictates what information is communicated and
how it is framed. Public discourse is tightly monitored to ensure alignment with the regime’s ideology.
• 5. Cult of Personality: Leaders are often portrayed as infallible and glorified through media. This
creates a "cult of personality," ensuring the population remains loyal to the ruler.
• 6. Elimination of Privacy: Communication among citizens is monitored, and privacy is almost
nonexistent. Surveillance mechanisms are used to identify and suppress subversive activities.
 Totalitarian Theory
Goals of Communication in Totalitarian Regimes:
• To maintain power and control over the population.
• To reinforce the ideology of the state.
• To eliminate dissent and foster conformity.
• To create a sense of unity and loyalty through controlled narratives.

Examples of Totalitarian Communication:

In essence, the Totalitarian Theories of Communication highlight the relationship between communication systems and oppressive
political regimes, showcasing how media and information are weaponized to sustain absolute power.