4-Electricity and Magnetism

Magnetism
Properties of Magnets
 Objects made from magnetic materials called
ferrous materials or ferromagnetic (such as iron,
steel, nickel and cobalt) can be magnetized or
attracted by a magnet.
 Objects made from non-magnetic materials called non-ferrous materials
(such as plastic, wood, paper or rubber) cannot be magnetized or attracted to
magnets.
 The parts of a magnet where the magnetic force is the strongest are called its
poles (as we move Away from the poles, the magnetic force strength decreases).
 The poles of a bar magnet are near its ends and occur in pairs of equal strength
(a north pole and a south pole).
 When a magnet is suspended freely, its north pole will point towards the
north of the Earth and its south pole will point towards the south of the Earth

Magnetic forces

“Similar poles repel and opposite poles attract”

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Magnetic Fields
The magnetic field is the region around a magnet where magnetic force can be
detected. This region contains the magnetic flux which is represented using lines of
force or flux lines.
Magnetic flux is a vector quantity, so flux lines should represent both magnitude
and direction,
Accordingly they
1. Show the shape of the magnetic field.
2. Show the direction of the magnetic field (field lines travel from north to South
Pole).
3. Show the strength of the magnetic field (the closer the lines the stronger the
field).

To investigate the magnetic field of a bar magnet

1. Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet.
2. Sprinkle iron filings on the paper and tap the paper gently to allow for
redistribution.
 The iron filings align themselves according to the shape of the magnetic
field

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To investigate Direction of magnetic field of a bar
magnet

1. place the plotting compass near the magnet on a piece of

paper

2. mark the direction the compass needle points

3. move the plotting compass to many different positions in

the magnetic field, marking the needle direction each time

4. join the points to show the field lines

The magnet could be either one of two types

Induced Magnetism
A magnet is placed near a magnetic substance so that the magnetic substance
attracted to the magnet and act as magnet, both iron and steel are magnetized by
induction but there are some differences:

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 More iron filings cling to iron than to steel so induced magnetism in iron is
stronger than in steel. Therefore, iron is easier to magnetize than steel.
 When the magnet is removed, iron loses its magnetism easily but steel retains its
magnetism.

Questions

1. The south pole of a magnet is used to test a range of materials. Explain what
will happen when the South Pole is placed near to:

 a) Another south pole.

 b) A copper wire.
 c) A steel paper clip.

Answer

a) Like poles repel, so the other South Pole will repel.

b) Copper is a non-magnetic material, so it will not be attracted or repelled.

c) Steel is a magnetic material so will always be attracted to any magnetic pole.

2. A loudspeaker contains a magnetically soft iron core.

Explain what is meant by a soft magnetic material.

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Answer

A soft magnetic material can be magnetized easily but quickly loses a magnetic field
/ is a temporary magnet.

3. Describe how to produce a uniform magnetic field between two permanent

magnets. You may add a diagram if needed.

Answer

To produce a uniform field you need two magnets,

with opposite poles facing/next to each other. The uniform region will be between
the two poles.

4. A student tries to demonstrate the magnetic field lines around a permanent

magnet by sprinkling salt crystals on a table mat placed over a strong
permanent magnet.

 a) Explain why no magnetic field pattern is seen.

 b) Suggest an improvement to this investigation, so that field lines can
be seen.

Answer

a) Salt is not a magnetic material. The crystals will not be affected by the magnetic
field.

b) Iron filings should be used instead, and sprinkled slowly on the region around the
magnet.

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Electric charge
According to the ability of a substance to allow electric charges to flow through it,
substances have been classified into
 Electrical conductor these are substances that allow charges (electricity) to
flow through
Them easily this is because they have free charge carriers, all metals are good
conductors as they have free electrons.
 Electrical insulators these are substances that do not allow electric charges to
flow easily through them. This is because they do not have free charge
carriers, most non-metals plastic, rubber, glass and wood. (except graphite and
silicon)

Determine whether material is conductor or an insulator

1- Set up the circuit as shown to connect a dry cell to lamp via steel paper clip
attached with crocodile clips
2- Observe that the lamp is lit, and conclude that the steel paper clips allow the flow
of charge (current)
3- Replace the steel paper clip with various other materials and observe the
appearance of lamp

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 There are two methods to obtain static electricity, either by friction of an
insulator or By induction of conductor

1. Charging an insulator by friction (rubbing)

When the uncharged plastic rod is rubbed with an uncharged dry piece of cloth,
electrons from the atoms of the rod may move onto the cloth. Now the charges on
each object are imbalanced. The rod becomes positively charged and the cloth
becomes negatively charged (has excess electrons).

 Only negative electrons can move / the positive protons remain fixed.

Before the experiment After rubbing with the cloth

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Electric forces between charges and electric fields

a) Electric forces
Charged objects can exert forces on other charged objects without
being in contact with them.
The closer the charges, the greater the force
“Like charges repel and unlike charges attract”

 Attraction exists between charged and

Uncharged (neutral) objects therefore, a neutral object can be attracted to a
positively charged rod and also to a negatively charged rod. Accordingly, attraction
is not considered to be a proof that an object carries a charge but repulsion is
considered to be. Because for repulsion to occur, both objects should have the same
type of charge
“Only repulsion can confirm that an object is charged”
b) Electric fields
An electric field is a region where an object experiences a force
due to its charge,
It is the region around a charge where the force of attraction or
repulsion can be observed by another test charge.
Electric fields are represented by imaginary lines showing the direction of the
force (away from a
positive charge and towards a negative charge). The spacing of the lines shows the
strength of the field. The more closely packed field lines, the stronger
the field
 The field lines caused by the parallel plates are parallel are parallel to
each other and equally spaced. The field is uniform. .
 The field of a point charge is called a radial field and is non-uniform

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125
Electric current
Electron flow and conventional current
Electric current is the flow of charge (carried by electrons)
 If a cell or battery is connected across the conductor (in a closed circuit), the
electrons flow in the direction away from the negative terminal and towards
the positive terminal. This flow of charge is an electric current.
 The free electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the
battery “Direction of electron flow”.
Whereas the “direction of conventional current” is from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of the battery

Measuring Electric current

Electric current is the rate of flow of charges.
Electric charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C). One coulomb of charge is the
equivalent of the
charge carried by electrons.
Electric current is measured in amperes where 1 C/s = 1 A

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) =

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 The size of the current flowing in a circuit is measured using an ammeter which
is connected in Series with the component of the circuit being investigated

 Ammeters have low resistance so that they measure the size of the
current flowing in the circuit without affecting its value.

Questions

1. A 0.3 amp household lamp is left on for 5 minutes. Calculate the charge
flowing through the lamp in this time.

Answer

In 5 minutes, the time in seconds is 5 x 60 = 300 s,

We know that Q = I x t
Therefore Q = 0.3 x 300
Q = 90 coulombs

2. A 30 mA L.E.D. is left on for some time. During this interval, 6 C of charge

flows through it. How long was the L.E.D. on for?

Answer

30 mA = 0.03 A, or if you are using standard form, 30 x 10-3 A (= 3 x 10-2 A).

If Q = I x t

6
Q
t=
t=
3 x 10-2
I

t = 200 s

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Voltage (potential difference)
 Cells or batteries transfer energy to the charges as they move them around
circuits. If a 1.5V cell is connected into a circuit, it means that 1.5 Joules of energy
is given to each coulomb of charge that passes through the cell.
 So the potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit is the
work done to drive one coulomb of charge between these two points. It is the
energy transferred per unit charge which is measured in Volt (V). 1 Volt = 1 J/C.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (V) =

 The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of an electrical source is the work done (energy
supplied) by the source to drive 1 coulomb of charge round a closed circuit
(energy gained by each coulomb).

 The potential difference (voltage drop) across a component (or between two
points in a circuit) is the drop in electric potential energy experienced by each
coulomb of charge due to resistance between these two points ( difference in
electrical energy )

Measuring the voltage

 To measure the voltage across a component in a circuit we use a voltmeter
which is connected in parallel with this component.
 Voltmeters have a very high resistance (very little
current flows through it) so that they measure the
potential difference across a component without affecting
the value of the current passing through this component.

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Questions

3. A kettle needs 20 kJ to boil the water inside. If the kettle voltage is 240 V,
calculate the total charge flowing through the kettle.

Answer

20 kJ is equal to 20 000 J.
We know E = Q x V,

20 000
E Q=
Q= 240
V

Q = 83.333 coulombs

4. A small cell is used to run a camping lamp. The cell stores 180 J of energy,
and is rated as 1.5 V.

 a) What is the total charge that can be delivered by the cell before it
runs out? (Assume when running, the cell voltage remains constant and
the cell is 100% efficient).
 b) The lamp needs 20 mA to operate. Using this information and your
answer from part (a), calculate the time for which the lamp can remain
lit.

Answer

a) If E = Q x V
180
E Q=
Q= 1.5
V

Q = 120 C

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b) If I = 20 mA (0.02 A) and Q = 120 C,
then using Q = I x t

Q 120
t= t=
I 0.02

t = 6000 s

Ohm’s law and Resistance of a conductor

The resistance of a component is what causes a voltage drop “potential difference”
across this component. The resistance of a conductor is “the ratio of the p.d.
applied across it, to the current passing through it”.
Resistance can be calculated by
𝑃 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ( R ) =

 Where R is measured in Ohms (Ω), V in volts and I in amperes. Thus,

1 Ohm= 1 Volt/Ampere

Type of resistor
1-fixed resistor
A resistor which have constant value all the time ( obey ohm’s law )

2-variable resistor (rheostat)

A resistor which has range of value which could be change manually
function: vary the current in the circuit by varying
resistance

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Measuring the resistance of a resistor
Set up the following experiment
 The voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the
resistor.
 The ammeter measures the current through the
resistor.
 The variable resistor allows you to change the size of
the current

Accordingly note the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.

Then move the variable resistor and take more readings.

Finally, plot a graph of voltage against current using your readings:

The slope of V against I graph gives the resistance of the wire
( R= V/I )

Ohm’s law
The current that flows through a metallic conductor is directly
Proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided
its temperature remains constant

Questions

1. A 20 Ω resistor is connected to a 6 V battery. What current flows through it?

Answer

We know that V= I x R, So

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 V
6
I=
I=
R
20

I= 0.3 A

2. A 4 kΩ resistor has a current of 2 mA flowing through it. What is the p.d.

across the resistor?

Answer

As 1 kΩ = 1000 Ω, then 4 kΩ = 4000 Ω

There are 1000 mA in an amp. So 2 mA = 0.002 A ( 2 ÷ 1000)

p.d. means potential difference - the voltage across the component.

Therefore as V = I x R;
V= 0.002 x 4000
V=8V

3. Two identical resistors R are connected to a 6 V cell as shown. The current

flowing from the cell is 4 A. What is the value of the resistor R?

Answer

In a parallel circuit, the current splits, and here both branches of the
circuit are identical. Therefore 2 amps flows down each branch.
Also for a parallel circuit, the voltage across all branches is the same
as the cell, so each resistor has a p.d. of 6V.

V 6
R= R=
I 2

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R=3Ω

Four factors affecting resistance

1. As the length increases, the resistance increases so
Rαl
2. As cross-sectional area increases, the resistance decreases.
R α 1/A
3. The resistivity (ρ) of the material
Copper is a good conductor “low resistivity” so used for connecting wires, while
nichelcrom has more resistance, so used in the heating elements of electric fires.
4. Temperature

a) I-V characteristics of Ohmic conductors

 The graph is a straight line passing through the origin , the current flowing
through the wire is directly proportional to the voltage applied across its ends.
This is Ohm’s law.
 The steeper the graph, the lower the resistance and vice versa.
 Copper wire and all other metals “metallic resistors” give this shape of graph,
unless they change temperature.
 The -V & -I show what happens when the battery connections are reversed so
current flows in the opposite direction. Accordingly, values of V & I are negative.
 The graph shows that the conductor has a constant resistance (constant slope)
which is the same for both current directions.

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b) I-V characteristics of a filament lamp:
 The graph is not a straight line, so the lamp is a non-
ohmic
 Conductor. As more current flows, the metal filament
gets hotter and electron in the wire collide with the
particle inside the wire the electron transfer energy to
the particle therefore internal energy of wire increase

Calculating Electrical power & Electrical energy

To calculate the power used up by any electrical component

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 & 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡
Using this rule and Ohm’s law, 2 other formulae can be obtained

𝑃 = 𝐼²𝑅 & 𝐸 = 𝐼²𝑅𝑡

𝒗 𝒗
p= & E= t

 energy (E) is measured in joules (J) , power (P) is measured in watts (W)

Questions

1. A 240 V toaster uses a current of 2A.

 a) Calculate the power used by the toaster whilst in operation.

 b) When the toast pops up after 1 minute, the toaster turns off.
Calculate the total energy transferred by the toaster.

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Answer

a) We know that P = I x V, so:

P = 2 x 240
P = 480 W

b) Firstly, remember to use 60 seconds, not 1 minute.

For this part of the question we can use E = I x V x t
E = 2 x 240 x 60
E = 28 800 J

2. The diagram below shows two heating elements connected in series. The
current flowing through the elements is 2.5 amps.

 a) Calculate the power output of 1 heating element.

 b) Calculate the total thermal energy produced from both elements
over a 5 minute interval.
 Answer

a) The p.d. across each element is 6 V, NOT 12 V.

Using P = I x V gives:
P = 2.5 x 6
P = 15 W each.

b) The total energy is given by E = I x V x t, and the total voltage is 12 V.

5 minutes = 300 seconds, so : E = 2.5 x 12 x 300
E = 9000 J

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3. A 230 V, 2kW mains kettle is used to boil a litre of water. This requires 340
kJ of energy.

 a) State one difference between mains electricity and the electricity

from a 9V cell.
 b) Calculate the current through the heating element of the kettle.
 c) Calculate the time required to boil the water.

Answer

a) Mains is a.c., whereas a cell is a d.c. supply

b) We know P = I x V

2000
P I=
I= 230
V

I = 8.70 amps

c) E = I x V t

E
t= 340 000 340 000
IxV t= =
8.7 x 230 2000
t = 170 seconds

E 340 000
t= =
P 2000

t = 170 seconds

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Current in series and parallel circuits
Current in series

 The current at all points around a series circuit is always the same

Current in parallel

 The current in a parallel circuit splits between the branches of the circuit.

Voltage in series and parallel circuits

Voltage in series

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 The voltage in a series circuit is split (or shared) between the components

Voltage in parallel

 The voltage (p.d) across all components in a parallel circuit is the same

Resistors in series and parallel

Series
If we connect two resistors in series, it makes it harder for current to flow - the
total resistance has increased. In fact, we can just add the value of the
resistors together to find the total resistance.

Parallel
If we connect two resistors in parallel, there are now two paths for the current,
and it makes it easier for current to flow round the circuit. The total resistance
is lower and the current is higher.

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 Summary
Series connection Parallel connection

 IT = I1 = I2  IT = I1 + I2

 VT = v1 + v2  V T = v1 = v2

 RT = R1 + R2
 = +

Questions

1. Two bulbs, X and Y are connected in series to a 6V cell.

 a) Draw a circuit showing the bulbs and cell. Add an ammeter that is
measuring the current in bulb X.
 b) The current through bulb Y is 500 mA.
i) What is this current in amps?
ii) What is the current through bulb X?

Answer

a) The diagram should look something like this, with all the
components in one loop

b) (i) 1 amp = 1000 mA, so 500 mA = 0.5 A

(ii) As the current is the same at all points, bulb X must also
get 0.5 A current.

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2. What is the current shown on the ammeters labeled P
and Q in the circuit shown here?

Answer

The cell produces a total current of 0.7 A. If 0.3 amps flows

along the bottom branch, then the remainder 0.4 amps flows
through the top branch.
Ammeter P shows 0.4 amps.

Once the current recombines and flows back to the cell, it equals 0.7 amps again.
The current through ammeter Q is 0.7 amps.

3. A buzzer is connected to a cell. Draw a circuit diagram to show how the

current through the buzzer and the potential difference across it can be
measured.

Answer

a) Note that the cell, buzzer and ammeter are all in series (in a single loop),
and the voltmeter is in parallel with the buzzer only.

4. All the bulbs in this circuit are identical. What are the readings on the
ammeter and voltmeter in this diagram?

Answer

Current reading:
The bulbs are all identical. That means the current in both branches
of the parallel circuit must be the same - 0.25 A in each. Therefore
the total current flowing out of the cell and back in to it must be 0.50
A.

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Voltage reading:
The bottom branch is in parallel with the top branch of the circuit. According to rule
4 in the green box, the voltages must be the same as the cell, 9V for each branch.
The voltage in a series circuit is split between the two components. As the two bulbs
are identical, each gets 4.5 volts, or a p.d of 4.5 V.

Advantages of parallel circuits over series circuits

In series circuit:
 if one component fails to work or blows, then all other components will not
work.
In parallel:
 if one component fails to work, all the other components still work.
 When components are connected in parallel to a power supply, they receive
more power than when connected in series
 also in parallel components can control separately by switch

Other circuit components

Thermistor
Thermistors are used as temperature sensors, for example, in
fire alarms. In the most common type of thermistor,
the resistance decreases as the temperature increases
 at low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is
high and little current can flow through them
 at high temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is
low and more current can flow through them

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LDRs (light-dependent resistors)

LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used to detect light

levels, for example, in automatic security lights. Their
resistance decreases as the light intensity increases

 in the dark and at low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high and little
current can flow through it

 in bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low and more current can flow through
it

Diode

It allow the current to flow in one direction only

A diode has a very high resistance in one direction. This means that
current can only flow in the other direction.

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This is the graph of current against potential difference for a diode

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

Produce light when a current flows through them in the forward

direction.

LEDs and lamps are often used for indicator lights in electrical
equipment, such as computers and television sets

Questions

1. An LED is connected in series with a 6V cell and a thermistor.

 a) Draw a circuit diagram showing the correct symbols for all

components.
 b) Explain what will happen to the brightness of the LED on a hot day, as
the temperature rises.

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Answer

a) The circuit diagram should look like this. Note that the L.E.D.
arrow must be in the direction of current flow from positive to
negative.
b) As the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor
decreases. This means that the current will increase in the
circuit, and the LED will become brighter.

2. The following circuit is constructed with a fixed resistor, an LDR and

various meters:

The light level in the room slowly increases. Explain what

happens to the readings of:

 a) the ammeter
 b) voltmeter 1 (labelled V1)
 c) voltmeter 2 (labelled V2)

Answer

a) As light falls on an LDR, the resistance decreases This means the total resistance
of the two components also decreases (The total is the sum of the two resistors - the
ammeter can be ignored).
If the total resistance decreases, then the current increases as shown on the
ammeter.

b) We know that for the fixed resistor, V = I x R

If the current I round the circuit increases, and R is fixed, then V1 must increase.

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c) The voltage in a series circuit is shared between the components.
If V1 increases, then V2 must decrease - the LDR gets a smaller share of the voltage
and has a smaller p.d. across it.

 diode have to be forward biased for current to pass

Electrical sources
1. Direct Current D.C
it is the supply which has an e.m.f. of constant polarity
and the
current is always in the same direction. Cells and
batteries provide direct current, which may change in
value but remains in the same direction.

2. Alternating Current A.C

It is the supply which has an e.m.f. of varying
magnitude and alternating polarity. This means that
the voltage is continuously changing in magnitude
and
the direction of the current is reversed continuously.

Electricity generators provide alternating current

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 A cell is a single component power supply has a value 1.5v or 2.0v
 A battery however is a group of cell connected together to increase voltage or
power supply
 When battery is a group of cell in series the voltage increase , but the positive
terminal has to be followed by a negative terminal and vice versa so that the
current would flow in the same direction
 if the cells are connected so that like terminals face each other’s the current
opposite direction so decrease the current and may cancel current in the circuit

Switches
A switch is used to control the flow of current in a circuit. Current flows in a
circuit when the Switch is closed or on… and does not flow when the switch is
open or off.
1. Normal switch: opens and closes a circuit
2. Parallel switch: A circuit can be switched on and off using either of the two
switches.

Mains electrical plugs

1 = cable grip
2 = neutral pin and wire
3 = earth pin and wire
4 = live pin and wire
5 = fuse

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  The live wire - this is the wire that is effectively connected to the power
station, pushing and pulling current around the circuit. If you touch the live
wire, you will receive a shock!
 The neutral wire - this is the 'return wire' completing the circuit back to the
power station.
 The earth wire - this is the third wire that is frequently missing in some
plugs, along with the third pin.
 The cable grip - this simply locks the cable in place, preventing someone
pulling on the connections, and possibly disconnecting part of the plug.
Sparks inside the plug can cause fires.
 Fuse - this is another safety feature like the earth wire,

Hazards of electricity

 Damaged insulation ‘ electric shock ‘

 Damaged plug ‘ short circuit ‘
 Damage conditions near socket ‘ short circuit ‘
 Long and tangled cables ‘ injuries

Protection

1. Fuse

It consists of a thin metal wire, mounted inside a short cylinder the fuse is designed
to melt when a specific current passes through it
When the fuse melts, it breaks the circuit and turns the appliance off preventing a
fire or other hazard. The appliance no longer works, so the fault is investigated,
fixed, and the fuse replaced

Choosing the fuse

The fuse used must be chosen carefully to match the appliance. This is because the
fuse should always be rated as just above the current needed for the appliance

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  This is because the fuse should always be rated as just above the current
needed for the appliance.

Questions:

1. A 2kW hairdryer is connected to the mains supply of 240 V.

 a) Calculate the current used by the hairdryer when in operation.

 b) Fuses of 1 A, 5 A, 8A and 13 A are available. Which of these fuses
should be fitted to the mains plug?

Answer

a) We know that P = I x V, so

P
I=
2000
V
I=
240

I= 8.33 A

b) If the hairdryer uses 8.33 A, then an 8 A fuse will blow, as will anything rated
lower than 8 A. The next one available above 8.33 A is the 13 A fuse.

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2. Circuit breakers

A circuit breaker is basically a more modern adaptation to the fuse. They work using
electromagnets, which open a switch if the current gets too high, and this breaks
the circuit. Many different current ratings are available.
Although the large circuit breaker box used in many homes is expensive, the
advantage is that the switches can be easily reset.

Electromagnetic induction
If a wire is moved across a magnetic field at right angles (to cut across lines of
flux), voltage is induced or generated in the wire this is called electromagnetic
induction.

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This can be demonstrated using the following experiment
a) When the magnet is moved into the coil, the galvanometer deflects in one
direction. If the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer deflects in
the opposite direction showing that the induced current flows in the opposite
direction.
b) If the magnet is stationary, the galvanometer
point is at zero and there’s no current induced
in the circuit.
c) If you move the magnet slowly, then small
deflection if you move it quickly, then large
deflection.
d) If you move a weak magnet, then small
deflection if you move a strong magnet, then
large deflection.

 cut off or interference between two magnetic field ( magnetic field magnet
and magnetic field of coil ) so change in magnetic field line so induced
voltage or induced current
 if it move parallel to magnetic field (no cut off) no current is induced

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To increase induced current
1. Using coil with more turns (increases the peak value not the frequency).
2. Using a stronger magnet or a powerful electromagnet or winding the coil round
a soft-iron core so that the field is stronger (increases the peak value not the
frequency).
3. Rotating the coil faster (increases both the peak value and the frequency).

Direction of deflection
Used to determine the direction of the induced current
The direction of induced current is opposite to the change
causing it

 if the south pole is approaching the coil it should be

repelled so a south pole close to the south pole of the
magnet will be induced and vice versa

Fleming right hand rule

This rule is used to indicate the direction of current caused by induced E.M.F

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A.C. Generator
 The a.c. generator converts kinetic energy into
electrical energy.
 The induced e.m.f. in an a.c. generator varies
with time (alternating) because the rate of
change in magnetic flux around the sides of
the coil varies as the coil rotates within the magnetic field.

To increase induced current

1- Using coil with more turns (increases the peak value not the frequency).
2- Using a stronger magnet or a powerful electromagnet or winding the coil round
a soft-iron core so that the field is stronger (increases the peak value not the
frequency).
3- Rotating the coil faster (increases both the peak value and the frequency).

The diagram shows how the varying voltage corresponds to the

different positions of the coil:
 The voltage is largest when the coil is horizontal (cutting through the field is
maximum as the coil is perpendicular to the field).
 The voltage is zero when the coil is vertical (no cutting through magnetic field
lines as the coil is parallel to the field).
 The direction of the induced current is reversed every half a rotation. This is
because the sides of the coil reverse their direction of motion across the field
every half a rotation.

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Questions

1. Describe the conditions necessary for induction to occur.

Answer

 Movement
 Of a wire / coil / conductor..
 Through a magnetic field /cutting through field lines / perpendicular to a
magnetic field.

2. An a.c. generator consists of a rotating coil in a magnetic field as shown in

figure

 a) State one way the output voltage from the generator can be
increased.

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  b) Explain why an alternating voltage is produced.
 c) Explain why there is a point in the rotation where no voltage is
produced.

Answer

a) To make the voltage higher, you can

either increase the strength of the magnets /
magnetic field, rotate the coil faster, or use more
turns on the coil.

b) An a.c. voltage is produced because any one

side of the coil moves up then down through the field as it rotates, making the
direction of the induced voltage change constantly.

c) At one point of the rotation, the sides of the coil are moving parallel to the field, so
no field lines are cut. Therefore, no voltage is induced

Magnetic Effect of a Current (electromagnetism)

When a current flows through a wire a magnetic field is created around the wire.
This is called Electromagnetism.

To make a powerful electromagnet, you need three

things

 A coil, like the solenoid, that will produce a

concentrated field inside.
 A current flowing through the coil.
 A soft magnetic material core inside the coil that
will be magnetized when the current is turned on, and quickly lose its
magnetism when switched off.

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To make a powerful electromagnet, you need a large number of turns in the coil, a
high current, and a highly magnetic material like a soft iron core, notice the 3 'C's
Remember Coil, Current, Core.

Relay switch
allow a small current to switch on or off a large current
 when small current , usually supplied with a low voltage passes through the coil
( electromagnet ) it is magnetized and attracts the spring metal to close the
second circuit which has separate power supply (high current)

Solenoid
Is basically a long coil of wire When a current passes through it, a strong magnetic
field is produced in the center of the coil as shown in figure Outside the coil, the
field is much weaker.

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Properties of the magnetic field around a solenoid
1. The magnetic field around a solenoid is the same as that around a bar magnet.
One end of the coil is a north pole and the other is a south pole.
2. The magnetic field inside a solenoid consists of close, equally spaced and parallel
flux lines “it is a strong uniform field”.
3. If the direction of the current flowing through the solenoid is reversed, so too are
the positions of the poles.

The strength of the magnetic field around a solenoid can

be increased by
1. Increasing the current flowing through the solenoid.
2. Increasing the number of turns on the solenoid – this does not mean making the
coil longer but packing more turns into the same space to concentrate the field.
3. Wrapping the solenoid around a magnetically soft core such as iron. Iron is easily
magnetized when current flows and is easily demagnetized when no current flows
in the solenoid

 reversing the direction of the current reverse the direction of the magnetic
field

The right hand grip rule

Hold out your right hand with your thumbs tucked in and your
thumb pointing upwards:

 the thumb is equal to the direction of current

 the fingers are equal to the magnetic field direction

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DC electric motor
Motor consists of
1. a rectangular coil
2. N-S poles of a permanent magnet,
3. split ring commutators
4. Carbon brushes.
 As current passing to coil by two carbon brushes magnetic field is created
around the coil
 Repulsion Force between magnetic field of coil and magnetic field of permanent
magnet , the coil turn 180 0 half turn
 split ring commutator reverse direction of current every half turn , to reverse
magnetic field of coil to complete rotation of coil ( complete turn )

To increase the rate of motor (the speed of rotation)

1. Increase the number of turns or loops of wire
2. Increase the strength of the magnetic field (use a stronger magnet).
3. Increase the current flowing through the loop of wire.

 If the direction of the current, or the poles of the magnet are reversed,
rotation will proceed in the Opposite direction.

Loudspeaker
The interact of the magnetic field generated by the coil and magnetic field of
permanent magnet apply force on the cone so that it moves in
certain frequency which produce sound

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Questions

1. A loudspeaker is connected to an a.c. electrical supply and produces a sound

wave. Suggest one way the speaker or supply could be modified or changed to
produce:

 a) A louder sound.
 b) A higher frequency sound.

Answer

a) To make the sound louder, you can increase the current (or voltage) from the
supply, increase the strength of the magnet / field used in the speaker, or use more
turns on the coil.

b) To produce a higher frequency sound, the frequency of the a.c. supply must also
be increase

2. A simple motor rotates due to the 'motor effect' forces acting on the coil.
Suggest two ways of increasing the force on the coil, and hence the speed of
rotation.

Answer

 Increase the current (or supply voltage).

 Increase the magnetic field strength produced by the magnets.
 Increase the length of the wire in the field, by having more turns on the coil.

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Fleming's left-hand rule
 The Thumb indicates the thrust (a force) on the current carrying
conductor.
 The First finger indicates the magnetic field (remember field lines go from
north to south).
 The second finger indicates the current.
 The magnetic field is always directed from north to south.

 Note that all three fingers in the left-hand rule are perpendicular to each other.
If there is a situation where the current is parallel to the magnetic field, then
there is no force.

Questions

1. A metal wire has a current flowing through it, and

is placed between two permanent magnets as shown
here:

 a) Use the left-hand rule to predict the force on the wire. Draw an arrow
on the diagram to show the direction of this force. Label the arrow 'F'.

159
  b) Describe a method of increasing the size of the force F without
replacing the magnets.

Answer

a) Your first finger on your left hand should point right, from
N to S. Your second finger should point into the 'page'. This
leaves your thumb pointing downwards. Your thumb
indicates the motion and hence the force. Draw an arrow downwards as shown here

b) You can increase the force by increasing the current. Alternatively, wrapping the
wire into a loop or coil with only one edge inside the field will effectively increase
the length of the wire. (Note that the magnets cannot be replaced in the question, so
you cannot increase the field strength).

Summary

Transformers
A transformer is a device that can change the potential difference or voltage of an
alternating current AC

 a step-up transformer increases the voltage

In a step-up transformer,( Vs > Vp ) &( Ns > Np )

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 a step-down transformer reduces the voltage

In a step-Down transformer ( Vs < Vp ) & ( Ns < Np )

Structure of a transformer
A basic transformer is made from two coils of wire, a primary coil from the
alternating current (ac) input and a secondary coil leading to the ac output. The
coils are not electrically connected. Instead, they are wound around an iron core.
This is easily magnetized and can carry magnetic fields from the primary coil to the
secondary coil

 The alternating voltage causes an alternating magnetic field to be set up

inside the iron core. This in turn induces an alternating voltage in a
secondary coil

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 input (primary) voltage [V] number of primary turns
=
output (secondary) voltage [V] number of secondary turns

Vp Np
=
Vs Ns

Questions

1. A phone charger uses a transformer with 5 000 turns on the primary coil
and 250 turns on the secondary. It is plugged into the mains supply with an
input voltage of 240 V.

 a) Explain if this is a step-up or step-down transformer.

 b) Calculate the output voltage of the transformer.

Answer

a) There are fewer turns on the secondary coil than the primary, so this is a step-
down transformer.

b)
Vin np
240 5000
= =
Vout ns Vout 250

240 x 250 Vout

=
5000 1

So Vout = 12 V

2. A very high voltage is required for 'spark' plugs that ignite the petrol in any
car engine. The transformer used to do this has an input voltage of 12 V and an
output voltage of 4800 V. The primary coil has only 10 turns.

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Calculate the number of secondary turns required to produce 4800 V.

Answer

V n 12 10
p p =
= 4800 ns
Vs ns

ns 4800 x 10
=
1 12

So ns = 4000

Transformers and efficiency

The formula for electrical power is P = I x V as We also know that energy cannot be
created Assuming the transformer is 100% efficient and no power is lost, then
the output power must match the input power.

Input power = output power

Vp x Ip = Vs x Is

Questions

3. A school power supply is used to run a heating element for an experiment.

The heating element runs on 12 V, and has a power output of 60 W.

The transformer used in the power supply has 240 V input and 800 turns on
the primary coil.

Calculate:

 a) The number of turns on the secondary coil of the transformer.

 b) The current output to the heating element.
 c) The current input to the transformer.

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Answer

Vp np
240 800
= =
Vs ns 12 ns

and rearranging this gives

12 x 800
ns =
240

So ns= 40

b) P = I x V,
so 60 = I x 12 Therefore I = 5 A

c) Using the second transformer equation Vp x Ip = Vs x Is gives:

Vp x Ip = Vs x Is
240 x Ip = 12 x 5 (from part b)

Therefore:

12 x 5
Ip =
240

Ip = 0.25 A

The national Grid system

 It is a network of wires and cables that carries electrical energy from power
stations to consumers such as factories and homes. To transfer the energy from
the power station to your home we use A high voltage and a low current.
 Because if the current flowing through the wire is kept to a minimum, the heat
losses are also reduced This is done with transformers at each end of the Grid

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 system to step-up the voltage and keep the current very low. This is the main
reason for using a.c. in the Grid (transformers do not work with d.c.).
 The step down transformer at the end of the transmission line reduces the
voltage back to safe usable levels at the consumer end

Questions

4. The diagram below shows the main stages in a local power distribution
system:

a) State the name of the type of transformer used at X and Y.

b) Explain why these transformers are required.

Answer

a) X is a step-up transformer, Y is a step-down transformer.

b) A step-up transformer increases the voltage and decreases the current. A lower
current leads to less power loss in the cables. (The high voltage and low current
makes the transmission more efficient).

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The step-down transformer is required to reduce this high voltage back down to
safe levels for domestic use.

166