Year 11 Physics

Name: _____________________
Class: __________
Year 11 Physics
IGCSE 2021
1
Name: _____________________
Class: __________
P5: Electricity and Magnetism
IGCSE 2021
2
Year 10 Physics P5: Electricity and Magnetism
P5: Electricity and Magnetism
0654 Physics
P5 Electricity and magnetism
P5.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
Core Supplement
1. Describe the forces between magnets, 2. Give an account of induced magnetism
and between magnets and magnetic
materials
3. Draw and describe the pattern and
direction of magnetic field lines around a
bar magnet
4. Distinguish between the magnetic
properties of soft iron and steel
5. Distinguish between the design and
use of permanent magnets and
electromagnets
6. Describe methods of magnetisation to
include stroking with a magnet, use of
direct current (d.c.) in a coil and
hammering in a magnetic field
P5.2 Electrical quantities
P5.2.1 Electric charge
Core
1. State that there are positive and Supplement
negative charges
2. State that unlike charges attract and that
like charges repel
3. Describe and interpret simple
experiments to show the production
and detection of electrostatic charges
by friction
4. State that charging a body involves the
addition or removal of electrons
6. Distinguish between electrical conductors 5. Describe an electric field as a region in
and insulators and give typical examples which an electric charge experiences a
force
3
P5.2.2 Current, potential

difference and electromotive
force (e.m.f.) Supplement
Core
1. Demonstrate understanding of
current, potential difference, e.m.f. and 3. Show understanding that a current is a
resistance rate of flow of charge and recall and use
2. State that current is related to the flow of the equation I = Q / t
charge
4. State that current in metals is due to a
flow of electrons
5. State that the potential difference (p.d.)
across a circuit component is measured in
volts
6. Use and describe the use of an ammeter 8. Show understanding that e.m.f. is defined
and a voltmeter, both analogue and digital in terms of energy supplied by a source
7. State that the electromotive force (e.m.f) of in driving charge around a complete
an electrical source of energy is measured circuit
in volts
P5.2.3 Resistance Supplement
Core
2. Sketch and explain the current-
1. State that resistance = p.d. / current and voltage characteristic of an ohmic
understand qualitatively how changes in resistor and a filament lamp
p.d. or resistance affect current 4. Recall and use quantitatively the
3. Recall and use the equation R = V / I proportionality between resistance and
length, and the inverse proportionality
between resistance and cross- sectional
area of a wire
P5 equations
Complete the equations in the boxes.
Core
Equation that links
current, resistance
and potential
difference
Supplement
Equation that links
charge, current
and time
4
1. Charges
In any object (even a human being) there are huge amounts of what scientists call
charge. You already know a lot about them from your previous studies. Can you fill in
the following gaps?
There are two types of charge, ___________ and ___________. Negative charge is
usually carried by ___________. Protons have a ___________ charge. Two of the
same charge, for example positive and positive, will ___________. Opposite charges
___________. Negative and positive charge usually exist in equal amounts and so
cancel each other out - that’s why we often don’t even realise they are there.
Sometimes, however, just by rubbing against something electrons can be scraped off
one object and be deposited on another due to friction. This leaves both objects with
an imbalance of charge. For example, if you were walking on a carpet it is possible
that electrons from the carpet could be scraped off on to your shoes. This would mean
that you are now negative as you have gained electrons. The carpet is now positive
as it has lost some electrons. We say that you and the carpet are now charged.
Lightning is a huge
discharge caused by
unbalanced electric
charges in the
atmosphere.
A typical lightning strike is

over 5 km long!
Why does lightning come

before thunder and not the
other way around?
____________________
____________________
5
This Van de Graaff generator uses friction to

scrape off electrons onto the belt. The
electrons are carried to the spherical metal
cover (dome). It now has a negative charge.
The electrons stay there as they can’t be
conducted through the air (air is an insulator).
When someone is touching the Van de Graaff

generator the electrons move on to them. If
they are insulated (by standing on polystyrene
for example) the electrons cannot go
anywhere so the person now has a negative
charge.
Why do the cupcake holders fly away?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Why does the person’s hair stand on end?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What happens when that person touches somebody else? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
6
Practice questions
7
2. Magnets
Magnets have an invisible force field around them called a magnetic field. Define the
term magnetic field below:
___________________________________________________________________
You already know a lot about magnets. Finsh these sentences:
Magnets have _________ and _________ poles. Like poles _________ and
opposites poles _________. Magnets will attract magnetic materials, which are
_________, _________ and _________.
The simplest magnetic fields are around bar magnets. Label the North and South
poles and draw the magnetic field lines, remembering to include the direction of the
lines.
How can you tell that the magnetic field is strongest at the poles?
___________________________________________________________________
The Earth’s Magnetic Field

Finish the diagram by drawing in the magnetic field
around the Earth and explain how this allows us to
navigate the Earth.
8
Induced magnetism
Magnetism can be induced in soft magnetic
materials (iron, nickel and cobalt). This can be
done with electricity, as you will see next lesson. It
can also happen by stroking a magnet along a
magnetic material, e.g. an iron nail, or putting it in
a strong magnetic field for a while. The soft
magnetic material then becomes magnetic for a
short time.
What does soft magnetic mean?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
How can an induced magnet be demagnetised?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Once something has been magnetised, it has some properties of a magnet, but not
all. What is the important difference between a permanent magnet and an induced
magnet?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
You are given three iron bars, only two of which are magnets. How can you find
which one is the odd one out?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
9
Uses of magnets
The classic example of a use of a
magnet is at the scrap yard where they
are used to separate out iron from other
metals and non-metals.
How many more uses can you find?
Fill in the table below, giving a brief
explanation of the uses you have found
and do not forget to reference the
website/book you found the information
in.
Use Description Website
10
Question practice 1
1 Which statement describes a property of a magnet?
A It attracts ferrous materials.

B It could have only one pole (north or south).
C It points in a random direction when suspended.
D It repels non-ferrous materials.
2 Which procedure may be used to demagnetise a steel bar?
A cooling it in a freezer
B earthing it with a copper wire
C placing it in a solenoid carrying a large direct current (d.c.)
D striking it repeatedly with a hammer
3 Two iron nails hang from a bar magnet.
Which diagram shows the magnetic poles induced in the nails?
A B C D
bar N N N N
magnet
S S S S
N S N S
S N S N
N N S S
S S N N
4 A student wishes to make a permanent magnet. She has an iron rod and a steel rod.
Which rod should she use to make the permanent magnet, and is this rod a hard magnetic
material or a soft magnetic material?
type of magnetic
rod
material
A iron hard
B iron soft
C steel hard
D steel soft
11
5 (a) Describe how the N pole of a bar magnet can be identified.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) Use words from the following list to answer the three questions below.
attractive force
repulsive force
no force
What force is there between
(i) two N poles, .......................................................................................................................
(ii) two S poles, .......................................................................................................................
(iii) a N pole and a S pole? .......................................................................................................

[3]
(c) Fig. 9.1 shows an iron bar placed close to the N pole of a bar magnet.
magnet iron
bar
Fig. 9.1
(i) On Fig. 9.1, write N and S, to indicate the induced poles in the iron bar. [1]
(ii) Use a word from the list in (b) to describe the force between the magnet and the iron bar.
.......................................................................................................................................[1]
(iii) The iron bar is reversed end-to-end.
Describe the force that now exists between the magnet and the iron bar.
.......................................................................................................................................[1]
[Total: 8]
12
3. Electromagnets
Magnetic field around a current-carrying wire
Everything that has an electric current going through it has a magnetic field around it.
For a single straight wire, the field is in the shape of concentric circles and the
direction of the current tells us if the field is going clockwise or anticlockwise. We use
the right hand grip rule to determine the direction of the field. Complete the drawing
below and annotate it to explain the right hand grip rule.
Magnetic field around a coil of wire
If we coil wire (we call this a

solenoid), the magnetic fields
combine to give a strong magnetic
field through the middle of the coil.
How would you describe the shape
of the field around the solenoid?
____________________________
____________________________
What can we do to make the magnetic field around a solenoid stronger?

•
13
Testing the strength of an electromagnet
Make an electromagnet by coiling approximately 100cm of wire around an iron rod.

Pass a current through the wire and observe. You can test the effects of changing
the above variables on the strengths of an electromagnet. See how many paperclips
your electromagnet can pick up or the furthest distance your electromagnet can
attract a paper clip from to determine its strength.
Points to remember:
1. The rod may be (or become) partially magnetised. Why is this? You can
reduce some of this by tapping the rod firmly against a heatproof mat.
2. Remember to change only one variable at a time.
Results
Draw a results table here to record your results:
What is your conclusion?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
14
Uses of electromagnets
You need to understand how electromagnets are used in two examples: a bell and a
relay switch. After your teacher has shown them to you, explain how they work,
remembering to use key words.
Bell / Buzzer
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
Relay Switch
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
15
Question practice Ϯ
1 An electric current is passed through a coil of wire.
coil of wire
Which diagram shows the shape of the magnetic field produced in the middle of the coil?
A B
C D
A strong electromagnet is used to attract pins.
current core
coil
pins
What happens when the current in the coil is halved?
A No pins are attracted.

B Some pins are attracted, but not as many.
C The same number of pins is attracted.
D More pins are attracted. 16
3 A permanent magnet is made from metal and an electromagnet uses a metal core.
Which metal is suitable for each of these purposes?
permanent core of
magnet electromagnet
A iron iron
B iron steel
C steel iron
D steel steel
4 Which diagram shows the magnetic field pattern around a wire that is carrying a current
perpendicular to the page?
A B C D
wire wire
17
Name: _____________________
Class: __________
P6: Electric Currents
IGCSE 2021
18
Year 11 Physics P6: Electric Currents
P6 – Electrical Circuits
0654 Physics
P6 Electric circuits
P6.1 Circuit diagrams
Core
1 Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing
sources, switches, resistors (fixed and variable),
lamps, ammeters, voltmeters and fuses
(Symbols for other common circuit components
will be provided in questions.)
P6.2 Series and parallel circuits
Core Supplement
3 Recall and use the fact that the sum of the
1 Understand that the current at every point in a
p.d.s across the components in a series circuit
series circuit is the same
is equal to the total p.d. across the supply
2 Calculate the combined resistance of two or
5 Recall and use the fact that the current from
more resistors in series
the source is the sum of the currents in the
separate branches of a parallel circuit
4 State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from
7 Calculate the combined resistance of two
the source is larger than the current in each
resistors in parallel
branch
6 State that the combined resistance of two
9 Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing
resistors in parallel is less than that of either
NTC thermistors and light-dependent resistors
resistor by itself
(LDRs)
8 State the advantages of connecting lamps in
10 Describe the action of NTC thermistors and
parallel in a circuit
LDRs and show understanding of their use as
input transducers
P6.3 Electrical Energy Supplement
1 Recall and use the equations P = IV and E = IVt
P6.4 Dangers of electricity

1 Identify electrical hazards including:
– damaged insulation
– overheating of cables
– damp conditions
2 State that a fuse protects a circuit
3 Explain the use of fuses and choose
appropriate fuse ratings
19
P6 equations
Supplement
Equation that
relates current,
charge and time
Electrical power
Electrical energy
Equation that links

potential difference,
current and
resistance
20
1. Electric Circuit Symbols
This is a diagram of a
circuit for a computer
chip. As you can see,
some circuit diagrams
can be extremely
complicated!
In this lesson you will

learn how to draw and
understand basic
circuit diagrams. These
diagrams will include
bulbs, wires,
ammeters, voltmeters,
motors and one or two
other things.
Using your knowledge from Year 7, or help from your teacher, draw a diagram for each
circuit component below. You should also try to write a short sentence about what it
does.
Name of component Diagram Description
Wire
Bulb (lamp)
Ammeter
Voltmeter
21
Cell
Fuse
Resistor
Variable resistor
Buzzer
Motor
What are the rules for drawing circuit diagrams in iGCSE Physics?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
22
Now draw the following circuits:
Two bulbs in
series with a cell
Two bulbs in
parallel with a cell
Two bulbs in
series with each
other but parallel
to a third bulb
and a cell
A motor and a
bulb which can
be switched on
and off
independently of
each other
A bulb that is
switched on
when a switch is
closed
A bulb that is
switched off
when a switch is
closed
23
2. Electric Currents
The point of any electrical circuit is to transfer energy from the cell (battery) to the
component, e.g. a light bulb. How do wires transfer this energy? The diagram may
help you explain.
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
Electrons are negatively charged. Charge is measured in units called coulombs, C.

Each electron is tiny. In a circuit, there are millions and millions of them moving
around.
What is an electrical current and how is it related to charge?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What is the mathematical relationship between charge, time and current? (Don’t
forget to define all symbols / terms and give units.)
Interesting fact: In the past, people thought it was positive charges that were moving
around a circuit and that they moved from the positive terminal of the battery through
the circuit to the negative terminal. Even though we now know this is not the case, most
scientists and textbooks still use this convention when talking about electricity. This
mistaken view is called conventional current.
24
Practice questions
Answer these questions in the space provided.
1) In a circuit 2 coulombs of charge move past a particular point in 2 seconds. What

is the current?
2) It takes 10 s for 50 C of charge to move past a light bulb in a circuit. What is the
current?
3) A current of 3 A flows for 100 seconds in a circuit connected to a motor. How

much charge flowed past the motor during this time?
4) An air conditioner has a current of 5 A flowing for 2 minutes. How much charge
flowed in this time? (Be careful with this question – convert the time to seconds
first.)
5) A vacuum cleaner has a current of 7 A. While it is switched on, 70 C of charge

pass through it. How long was it switched on for?
6) Challenge question: How many days would a circuit need to be switched on for if
it had a current of 3 A and had to move 6000000 coulombs of charge?
25
Electrical current is measured using a device called an ammeter. Draw the circuit
symbol for an ammeter and state the units it measures current in.
Interesting fact:
An ammeter is
always placed in
series in a circuit
i.e. in line with the
rest of the circuit.
Rules for current in series and parallel circuits
Set up this series circuit and record the ammeter readings.
Ammeter 1: From this experiment I can

conclude that the current
Ammeter 2: in a series circuit is the
__________ all the way
Ammeter 3: around. The current is not
used up.
Now set up this parallel circuit. Ammeters 1 and 4 have

the _________ amount of
current flowing through
them. The reading from
Ammeter 1: ammeter _______ added
to ammeter _______
Ammeter 2: equals the reading on
ammeters __________and
Ammeter 3: __________.
Ammeter 4: From this experiment I can

conclude that in a parallel
circuit the current
__________ as it travels
along different branches.
26
To prove that you have learned today’s lesson, write down the missing ammeter
readings below.
The rectangles in the diagram are resistors – you will learn more about these later –
you only need to be concerned with how the current splits in this exercise.
Fig. 1
Ammeter 1:
Ammeter 2:
Ammeter 3:
Current flowing through wires in electric circuits has often been compared to water
flowing through pipes. How good is this analogy? Can you think of anything that it
cannot explain or can you think of a better one?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
27
3. Voltage
In this activity you will act out the

workings of an electric circuit. As well
as being fun, this activity can be
extremely useful in developing an
understanding of the word ‘voltage’.
You will also learn about the words
‘potential difference’ and ‘e.m.f.’.
What is the name of the charged particles flowing around an electric circuit?
___________________________________________________________________
What charge do these particles have? ____________________________________
What is the unit of charge? _____________________________________________
What is voltage?
When it comes to electric circuits, rather than simply considering energy, physicists
like to talk in terms of how much energy (measured in joules) each coulomb of charge
has as it goes around the circuit.
Define the unit of voltage / potential difference, the volt (V), in terms of energy and
charge:
___________________________________________________________________
Voltage comes in two distinct types: potential difference (p.d.) and electromotive
force (e.m.f.). Define these below:
Potential difference (p.d.): ______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Electromotive force (e.m.f): _____________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
28
Acting out circuits
1. Flowing charges
You are going to act out this simple circuit.

Nominate one person to be the cell – give them a pile
of energy (represented by weights).
Nominate one person to be the bulb – they can stand
at the back of the class. Everybody else represents the
electrons or charges flowing around the circuit. They
pick up some energy (a weight) at the cell and carry it
to the bulb, then they return to the cell empty handed
and collect some more energy, which is taken to the
bulb, and so on. The key point is that the charge
doesn’t run out – it simply transfers energy from one place (the cell) to another (the
bulb) and then keeps repeating this action.
2. Voltage
We say that 1 Volt means that each Coulomb of charge is carrying 1 Joule of energy.
Repeat activity one but this time think a little more mathematically. If each person
moving represents 1 Coulomb of charge and each weight represents 1 Joule of
energy, then if each person has one weight we can say the voltage is 1 V (1 Joule per
Coulomb). The battery is giving 1 V to the circuit. The light bulb is removing 1 V from
the circuit. The charges go back to the cell empty handed again.
Repeat the activity again but now the cell should give each person two weights at a
time. How much voltage is being put into the circuit by the cell? How much voltage is
being taken out of the circuit by the bulb?
3. Splitting the voltage in a series circuit
This time, there are two bulbs in the circuit. Set

the cell to 2 V. This time when the charges get to
the first bulb they hand over one weight only. They
hand over the second weight when they get to the
second bulb and return empty handed as usual.
The cell gave 2 V (2 Joules per Coulomb) to the
circuit. How much did each bulb take out of the
circuit?
In a series circuit we say that the voltage is
shared. Imagine if we had lots of bulbs in series –
how much energy would each take out? How
would this affect their brightness?
29
4. Splitting the voltage in a parallel circuit
This time, the two bulbs are in parallel. Be careful of

the path the charges take!
Since both “branches”, or paths, are the same, the
charges will split evenly; one charge goes to one
bulb, the next charge goes to the other bulb.
What voltage is each bulb taking from the circuit?
In a parallel circuit like this, we say that the voltage
supplied by the cell is equal to the voltage taken by
each of the branches in the circuit.
What might the brightness of the bulbs be now when
compared to the series circuit? Why else might a
parallel circuit be better than series one?
Building circuits
Now that you have acted out the theory, let’s see if this works in practice.
What is this piece of equipment called and

what is the symbol used to display it in a
circuit diagram?
______________________________
Voltmeters are plugged in in parallel

with the item which they are
measuring. If you wish to measure the
potential difference of a cell for
example, you plug in the voltmeter into
either side of the cell.
30
1. Measuring voltage
Set up the following circuit and measure the potential difference (voltage) across the
bulb.
The potential difference across the bulb is
_______________ V. This means that it
takes ______________ Joules from each
Coulomb of charge.
2. Voltage in a series circuit
Set up the next circuit and measure the potential difference across each bulb (you
don’t actually need two voltmeters – you can use the same one twice).
The pd across the first bulb is
_________ V.
The pd across the second
bulb is ________ V.
Looking at your results, what would you say happens to voltage in series circuits?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
31
3. Voltage in a parallel circuit
Set up this circuit and measure the voltage across each bulb. You don’t need two
voltmeters – you can use the same one twice.
The pd across the first bulb is
______________ V.
The pd across the second bulb is
______________ V.
The emf across the power supply is
______________ V.
Looking at your results, what would you say happens to voltage in parallel circuits?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
32
4. Electrical Power
In P2, you learned an equation linking power and energy (or work done). Can you
recall it and all the units involved?
___________________________________________________________________
Prove you remember how to use it by answering these questions, showing all your
working. Remember to rearrange the equation before inserting numbers.
1) A motor uses 500 J in 50 seconds. What is its power?
2) How long does a 60W light bulb have to be switched on for to use up
3000J of energy?
3) If a 60W light bulb is switched on for 2 minutes, how much energy does it
use?
Today, you will learn an equation for electrical power.
This is the nuclear power station at Daya

Bay, Shenzhen. Most of our power in
Hong Kong comes from there.
Its power output is approximately 2000

million watts (2 000 000 000 W, or 2 GW).
How much energy does it deliver in a
typical day?
33
All electrical circuits transfer energy from one place to another, for example from a
battery to a bulb. Write the equation used to calculate the electrical power of a
component from current and voltage in the box below:
Set up the following circuits. Using the voltmeter and the ammeter, find the potential
difference and the current. Then calculate the power.
The current is ____________ A.
The potential difference across the bulb is ________ V.
The power of the bulb is ________________ W.
The current is ____________ A.
The potential difference across the motor is ______ V.
The power of the motor is ________________ W.
34
Can you now link the two equations you have used today into one which links
energy, current, voltage and time?
Practice questions
1) The current through a small bulb is 0.01 A. The potential difference across it is
2.5 V. What is its power?
2) If it is switched on for 1 hour, how much energy does it use?
3) Your TV has a power of 80 W. The potential difference across it is 240 V.

What is the current flowing through it?
4) Your air conditioner has a power of 1000 W. The current flowing through it is
4.2 A. What is the potential difference?
5) A projector has a potential difference of 220 V and a current of 3 A. If it is left

on for 2 hours how much energy has it used?
6) You are given a motor, a cell (battery) and some wires. What other equipment
do you need in order to calculate the power?
7) Draw a circuit diagram for question 6.
35
5. Resistance
Today’s lesson will be on resistance. As well

as being able to understand the term, you
should be able to set up an experiment that
will enable you to determine the resistance
of a component.
Draw the symbol for a resistor and a variable

resistor here:
Define the following words.
Conductor:
___________________________________________________________________
Insulator:
___________________________________________________________________
Some things are better at conducting electricity than others. Resistance is a measure
of how much something resists (or tries to stop) an electric current flowing. The
higher the resistance of a component, the poorer it is at conducting.
To measure the resistance of something we need to know the potential difference

across it and the current through it. Write down the equation for calculating
resistance in the box below. Make sure to give the units of all quantities.
36
Set up the following circuit and calculate the resistance of a bulb.
The current flowing through the bulb is ____ A.
The potential difference across the bulb is ____ V.
The resistance of the bulb is (show your

calculation):
Practice questions
1) A motor has a pd of 6 V and a current flowing through it of 3 A. What is its

resistance?
2) A resistor has a resistance of 5 Ω. If the current is 2 A, what must the potential

difference be?
3) A wire has a resistance of 10 Ω. If the potential difference is 50 V, what is the

current flowing?
4) A variable resistor is a device in which resistance can be changed. Describe

how this might be useful in a dimmer switch for a light.
37
6. Ohm’s Law
In this lesson you will investigate the relationship between potential difference and
current in a metal wire. You will draw a graph from the results of your experiment and
analyse it.
Equipment Draw the circuit you will use here. You need it
- Length of resistance wire to measure the potential difference and current
(approx. 20cm) across your wire.
- Ammeter
- Voltmeter
- Variable resistor
- Power pack
- Leads
- Crocodile clips
- Heatproof mat
Method
1. Set up your circuit using a power pack as the power supply.
2. Set the power pack to d.c. 8V.
3. Make sure your wire is placed on the heatproof mat.
4. Use the variable resistor to give a low value on the voltmeter.
5. Read the value of the current on the ammeter.
6. Move the slider a little on the variable resistor. Read the new potential difference
and the new current.
7. Repeat until you have 6 readings of potential difference and current. Put your
results in the results table on the next page.
Safety: The resistance wire may get hot.

Place the wire on a heatproof mat and don’t touch it unless you are absolutely sure
it has cooled down.
Keep the variable resistance high enough to produce low voltage values.
Turn off the power pack when not taking readings.
Do not put anything in a plug socket except the plug for the power pack.
38
Results
Potential Difference (V) Current (A)
Plot a line graph of your results on graph paper and draw a line of best fit. Put the
potential difference on the y-axis.
You know the equation is V = IR. Using your knowledge of straight-line graphs from
Mathematics, how can you find the resistance of the wire using your graph?
___________________________________________________________________
Find the resistance in the space below. Compare this to the results of your peers.
What is your conclusion for how potential difference affects current in a wire?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
How could you improve this experiment?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
39
7. Factors Affecting Resistance
Sending electricity from power

stations to cities along lengthy wires
can be very wasteful. Why is this?
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
What do you think happens to the resistance of a wire as it gets longer?
___________________________________________________________________
How does the length of a wire affect its resistance?
The independent variable is _____________________________________________
The dependent variable is ______________________________________________
Some control variables are _____________________________________________
Set up this circuit on a heatproof mat.
A power pack should be connected to an

ammeter, which will measure the current through
the constantan wire. The voltmeter will be
connected across the wire.
Use a length of 50 cm. By measuring potential
difference and current, calculate the resistance.
Change the length to 40 cm and repeat.
Constantan Wire
Keep repeating and finish with a length of 10 cm.
Record your results on the table on the next
page.
Safety: the wire may get hot so don’t
touch it unless you are sure it has
cooled down.
40
Length (cm) Pd (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
Plot a graph of resistance (y axis) against length of wire (x axis).
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
How could you have improved your experiment?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Practice questions
1) A wire has resistance 12 Ω. Its length is then doubled. What is its new
resistance?
2) A wire has a resistance of 24 Ω and a length of 15 cm. The length is reduced

to 10 cm. What is the new resistance?
3) Describe in as much detail as you can why it is difficult to transmit electricity

over long distances through wires.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
41
How does the cross-sectional area of a wire affect its resistance?
This time, you will have to find a connection between cross sectional area and
resistance. Draw the circuit you will use, including the ammeter and voltmeter in the
correct positions.
You will also have to calculate the

cross-sectional area of the wire. To do
this you will measure the diameter of
the wire using a micrometer. You will
then work out the cross-sectional area
of the wire using 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 . Be careful:
you use the radius, not diameter in this
calculation!
Do this first for the different wires you have:
Wire name / gauge Diameter (mm) Cross-sectional area

(mm2)
Method:
1. Measure out equal lengths of the different thickness of resistance wires.
2. Connect up the circuit you have drawn with the thinnest resistance wire
connected.
3. Record the current and voltage from the ammeter.
4. Replace the thinnest resistance wire with a thicker piece of wire.
5. Repeat above steps until you have results for all wires.
Be careful not to leave the circuit connected for long as the wires might get hot.
You could work with several other groups to save on pieces of wire.
42
Cross-sectional Current (A) Voltage (V) Resistance(Ω)

area of wire
(mm2)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
How could you have improved your experiment?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
43
Alternative to Practical Question Practice
1 A student is comparing the electrical resistances of two pieces of resistance wire, X and Y.
The wires are made from the same alloy but are different in length and thickness.
The pieces of wire are shown in Fig. 6.1.
wire X
wire Y
Fig. 6.1
(a) Measure the lengths of wire X and wire Y in centimetres to the nearest millimetre.
Record the lengths in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1
wire X Y
length / cm
thickness / millimetres 0.2 0.9
[2]
The student uses the circuit shown in Fig. 6.2 to find the resistance of the wires.
meter
meter
resistance wire
X or Y
Fig.6.2
(b) (i) Complete the diagram in Fig. 6.2 by writing the letters A and V to show the
ammeter and voltmeter in the correct places. [1]
44
(ii) Fig. 6.3 shows the voltmeter and ammeter readings when one of the wires is
connected in the circuit.
Read the meters and record the readings in column 1 of Table 6.2.
0.2 0.3 0.4

5 0.1 0.
0 0 5
V A
Fig. 6.3
Table 6.2
column 1 column 2
current / amps 2.5
voltage / volts 0.5
resistance / ohms 0.2
[2]
(iii) Use the data in column 1 of Table 6.2 to calculate the resistance of this wire.
Record the resistance in Table 6.2.
[2]
(c) The student has forgotten which wire he used to record the data in each column of
Table 6.2.
(i) Decide which wire, X or Y, produced the results shown in column 1, and which
wire produced the results shown in column 2.
Complete the sentences.
Column 1 shows the data for wire
Column 2 shows the data for wire [1]
45
(ii) Explain your choice in (c)(i) by stating how the lengths and thicknesses of the two
wires affect their electrical resistance.
[2]
46
8. Adding Resistances
In this lesson you will learn about how to combine different resistances. This works
differently depending on whether you add them in series or in parallel.
We will use an ohmmeter to find the total resistance.
Adding resistors in series
Collect three resistors and join them together as in the diagram (you don’t need to
connect them to a power pack). Using the ohmmeter, measure the resistance of each
resistor individually, then measure the total resistance of them all in series.
First resistor __________Ω

Second resistor __________Ω
Third resistor __________Ω
Combined resistance __________Ω
Looking at your results, can you work out the equation we can use to calculate
resistance in series?
Adding resistors in parallel
This time, connect your resistors in parallel as below and measure the resistances.
First resistor __________Ω

Second resistor __________Ω
Third resistor __________Ω
Combined resistance __________Ω
47
Looking at your results, can you work out the equation we can use to calculate
resistance in parallel?
Practice questions
1) What is the total resistance between points A and B in the following circuit?
A B
A B
A B
48
A B
A B
6) Extra hard question: Calculate the readings on each of the voltmeters and
each of the ammeters.
49
9. Electric Currents Question Practice
Research has shown that

successful students are
those that are able to
reflect upon their and other
students’ learning.
It can be argued that the
main job of a teacher is to
enable their students to
understand not what they
have learned but how they
have learned it and what
they should do if they want
to improve.
In this lesson you will do
exactly that.
Your teacher will put you into random groups. Each group will have three students in
it.
Task 1 (25 mins) Create a mini exam based on the topic of electricity. It should
include 5 multiple choice questions and 2 longer questions. The
questions should be challenging but not impossible. You may
want to use your laptop or paper to write these. You should also
produce a mark scheme.
Task 2 (15 mins) Swap your questions with those of another group. Try to answer
the other group’s questions as fully as you can.
Task 3 (15 mins) Combine the two groups. Mark and discuss each group’s
answers. Fill in your report sheet on the next page for the other
group and give it to them. Be as honest and has helpful (not
critical) as you can be.
50
Feedback
My name:
Names of people in the group I am feeding back to:
What are the strengths of the group?
What areas do the group need to improve on?
Suggest exactly what they should do in order to improve (be specific – avoid writing
things like “work harder” or “revise electricity more”.)
51
10. Light Dependent Resistors and Thermistors
This device could save your life! If there is

a fire it will automatically spray water to put
it out. How does it know if there is a fire or
not?
A fire alarm contains a circuit which can

detect temperature. If the temperature
gets too high, the water is switched on.
Today, you will find out about light-

dependent resistors (LDR) and
thermistors.
Your teacher will demonstrate how a light dependent resistor (LDR) and a thermistor
work. Fill in the following table about LDRs and thermistors.
Resistance
Component Circuit symbol Environment
(high or low)
Plenty of light
LDR
Low light
High temperature
Thermistor
Low temperature
52
Design a circuit that switches a light on when it gets dark.
Design another circuit that switches a heater on when it gets cold.
53
11. Dangers of Electricity
Electricity is very useful, but it can also be hazardous. We must learn to use it safely.
Complete the table below to outline some safety hazards.
Damaged Insulation
Overheating of Cables
Damp Conditions
Wiring an electric plug
You will practice this, directed by your teacher. Write down what each wire in the
plug does.
Wire Colour Use
Live
Neutral
Earth
54
Fuses
Fuses protect electrical appliances from large currents passing

through them. Draw a series of diagrams below to show how a fuse
works.
Fuses come in different values, typically 3A, 5A, 13A or 30A. This tells you the current
that melts the fuse wire. We select the smallest fuse that still allows a normal current
to flow through the appliance.
E.g. a hairdryer has a typical current of 6A at maximum power. We would use a 13A
fuse here.
A TV typically uses 1.5A at maximum power - a 3A fuse would be best here.
Your teacher will show you a fuse ‘blowing’.
Circuit breakers
A circuit breaker breaks the circuit if too much current

flows. If the current becomes too large, the
electromagnet becomes very strong. This attracts an
iron contact causing a gap in the circuit, so the current
stops. We say that the circuit breaker has “tripped”.
What is the benefit of a circuit breaker over a fuse?
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
55
Name: _____________________
Class: __________
P7: Electromagnetic Effects
IGCSE 2021
56
Year 11 Physics P7: Electromagnetic Effects
P7: Electromagnetic Effects

0654 Physics
P7 Electromagnetic effects
P7.1 Magnetic effect of an electric current
Core Supplement
1 Describe the pattern of the magnetic field 2 Describe the effect on the magnetic field of
(including direction) due to currents in straight changing the magnitude and direction of the
wires and in solenoids current
P7.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor
Core Supplement
1 Describe an experiment to show that a force 2 State and use the relative directions of force,
acts on a current-carrying conductor in a field and current
magnetic field, including the effect of reversing:
– the current
– the direction of the field
P7.3 d.c. motor
Core Supplement
1 State that a current-carrying coil in a magnetic 2 Relate this turning effect to the action of an
field experiences a turning effect and that the electric motor including the action of a split-ring
effect is increased by: commutator
– increasing the number of turns on the coil
– increasing the current
– increasing the strength of the magnetic
field
P7.4 Electromagnetic induction Supplement
1 Show understanding that a conductor moving
across a magnetic field or a changing magnetic
field linking with a conductor can induce an
e.m.f. in the conductor
2 State the factors affecting the magnitude of an
induced e.m.f.
57
0654 Physics
P7.5 a.c. generator
Supplement
1 Distinguish between direct current (d.c) and
alternating current (a.c)
2 Describe and explain the operation of a
rotating-coil generator and the use of slip rings
3 Sketch a graph of voltage output against time
for a simple a.c. generator
P7.6 Transformer
Supplement
1 Describe the construction of a basic
transformer with a soft-iron core, as used for
voltage transformations
2 Describe the principle of operation of a
transformer
3 Use the terms step-up and step-down
4 Recall and use the equation
(Vp / Vs) = (Np / Ns) (for 100% efficiency)
5 Describe the use of the transformer in high-
voltage transmission of electricity
6 Recall and use the equation
Ip Vp = Is Vs (for 100% efficiency)
7 Explain why power losses in cables are lower
when the voltage is high
P7 equations
Supplement
Transformers
58
1. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
When electricity and magnetism come together, exciting things happen!
We have already seen that a wire carrying a current has a circular magnetic field
around it. What happens when you put this in a permanent magnetic field?
In this example we have a

wire (the central red dot)
carrying current into the
paper. We also have the
horizontal field lines that are
due to the permanent magnet.
However, these magnetic fields

are not different. They combine
to give a combined magnetic
field as shown here. The field
lines above the wire are in the
same direction and add up to
give a strong field. The field
lines are in the opposite direction below the wire so they cancel out to give a weaker
field. This produces a force (that we call the motor force) in a downwards direction.
This induction of a force (and hence movement) when a magnetic field and current
are present is called the motor effect. You will find in this topic that magnetic field,
current and movement always come together; any two will induce (create) the third.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
We can figure out the direction in which the field, current and movement go using
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (LHR). Label each finger below.
59
Your teacher will demonstrate a few applications of Fleming’s LHR, such as the one
pictured below. Using your knowledge of the motor effect, explain what is happening
and explain the direction of the force on the rod.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
For the rest of today’s lesson, and probably another lesson after, you will be building
a small motor. This is tricky, especially getting the commutator right. Enjoy!
60
2. D.C. Motors
A D.C. (direct current) motor transforms electrical and magnetic energy into kinetic
energy. Just like last lesson, when a current flows through a magnetic field, a force is
induced. This leads to movement.
This runs on D.C., the one way current that flows from a battery cell. A commutator
is needed for this to work. What does a commutator do and why is it needed?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
The turning force (torque) on the motor can be increased by:
For the rest of the lesson, try to finish building a functioning motor!
61
3. A.C. Generators
Today you will find out about generators, which are machines that create electricity.
Generators work just like motors, but backwards: moving a wire in an electric field
induces a current.
Watch the following demos and answer the questions.
2. This time, the teacher will have a coil or

Millivoltmeter wire, through which a bar magnet may be
moved.
1. The teacher will show you a horseshoe i. What happens to the millivoltmeter when
magnet. They will move a wire, attached to a you move the magnet into the coil?
millivoltmeter, in the gap between the faces of
the magnet. Observe carefully, as the needle
may move very slightly.
i. What happens when you move the wire up ii. What happens to the millivoltmeter when
and down vertically? you move the magnet out of the coil?
ii. What happens when you move the wire

from side to side horizontally?
iii. Repeat i and ii above but move the magnet
faster. Compare your observations with those
iii. What happens if you move the wire faster? above.
iv. Write a rule which states how currents are

induced.
iv. Describe what happens when you keep the

magnet still and move the coil over it.
62
3. A coil of about 20 turns Observations:

is wound on a C-core.
The ends are connected
to a sensitive meter.
A small magnet is brought
near the C-core.
4. 10 turns of wire are Observations:

wound around another C-
core and connected to an
electric cell.
This electromagnet is
brought near the C-core
used in part 3.
5. This time, both cores Observations:

touch while the power in
the electromagnet is on.
Watch what happens as
the power is switched on
and off.
63
Can you suggest two rules for electromagnetic induction?

For there to be an induced current:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
The size of the induced current can be increased by:
Extension
There are two very important rules for electromagnetic induction called Faraday’s
Law and Lenz’s Law. Find out about these two rules and note down the key points
below.
64
How does an A.C. generator work?
As you can see, a generator looks very similar to a motor. This time however,
movement and a magnetic field induce a current.
Note that instead of a commutator, a generator uses slip rings. These do a similar
job: they avoid wires getting tangled up, while reversing the current direction every
half turn. This leads to the electricity flowing forward for a half a turn, then backwards
for half a turn: we call this alternating current, or A.C. The mains current, which
comes out of the plug sockets, alternates at 50 Hz – 50 times a second.
1. What does 50 Hz mean?
2. What is the main difference between D.C. and A.C.?
3. Name two sources of D.C.
4. Using your knowledge motors, explain how the generator works.
5. Describe the main difference between the structure of the generator and the
motor.
65
This diagram shows the voltage

output of a generator. It includes
the position of the coil at each
stage.
Draw an arrow below the magnets

at the bottom of the image to show
the direction of the magnetic field.
Look carefully at the direction of

a b c d e movement of the coil relative to
the direction of the field.
cross section through the coil

(end view)
6. Explain why no current is generated when the coil is in positions a, c and e.
7. Explain why the size of the current generated is a maximum at positions b and
d.
8. This curve shows the output from the generator illustrated above (f = 50 Hz).
Sketch on the axes to show the output from a generator turning twice as fast, i.e. at
100 Hz.
66
4. Transferring Electricity
Electricity is made in a power station, but how does China Light and Power get it to
your house?
Your teacher will show you a model power distribution system like that in the
diagram.
The model represents a power station sending electricity to a small town. It consists of:
• A low voltage A.C. power pack
• two bulbs (bulb 1 and bulb 2)
• constantan wire
• retort stands.
1. Complete the table below to identify which of these components represent the
following.
Real life component Model component
The power station
The supply lines
Pylon
A light in the power station
A light in a far-off town
67
2. Compare the brightness of the two bulbs. What do you notice?
3. Try swapping the bulbs over. What do you notice now?
4. Your teacher will use a joule meter to measure the energy supplied to each bulb
in 10 s. Complete the table.
Bulb Energy supplied (J)
5. Which bulb gets more energy and why?
6. In what form is energy lost in the system?
7. Draw a circuit diagram of the model circuit below.
68
Now watch another demonstration by your teacher to show how China Light and Power
reduce the waste of energy in supply lines. This system uses two transformers.
8. Why must the system run off A.C., not D.C.?
9. Draw a circuit diagram of this model system. Here is the circuit

symbol for a transformer.
10. Explain how this model is different from the previous model on side 1.
69
Because energy must be conserved, and power is just how fast you transfer energy,
you can transfer electricity in different ways. Since P = IV, as long as the power stays
the same, the current and voltage can be varied – but the total amount of energy will
not change.
A typical thermal power station generates electricity at 1000 MW. This can be
transmitted at a range of different V and I combinations, e.g.:
1. I = 1000 A, V = 1,000,000 V; this gives P = 1000 x 1,000, 000 = 1000 MW
2. I = 10,000 A, V = 100,000 V; this gives P = 10,000 x 100, 000 = 1000 MW
3. I = 100 A, V = 10, 000, 000 V; this gives P = 100 x 10, 000, 000 = 1000 MW.
The power loss due to heat in a line = I2R (You can try to prove this).
Is power loss reduced by using a low voltage and a high current or a high voltage
and a low current?
Transformers can be very large…
And very small.
70
Summary
China Light and Power grid
To transfer __________ from the __________ station to my home, we could use
either a low voltage and a high current or a __________ voltage and a __________
current. The first method is not efficient, because the high current causes
__________ loss in the wires as __________. The second method is used. A step-
up __________ increases the __________ and decreases the __________. Energy
is transferred in the wires with little power loss. At the other end of the grid, near your
home, a __________ transformer is used to reduce the voltage to a __________
level. A.C. (__________ current) has to be used, because __________ do not work
with __________ current (D.C.).
Put the steps below in the correct sequence.

A B C
Electricity is The turbine turns a The voltage is
supplied at 230 V generator stepped up to
to your home 132 kV or more
by a transformer
D E F
The energy is Gas or coal is burned in Water is heated to make
transferred through air in the power station steam
the grid at
this high voltage
G H I
The steam makes a The voltage is The generator
turbine turn stepped down to produces electricity (A.C.)
230 V by a
transformer
71
5. Transformers
Last lesson, you found out how useful transformers are. This time, you will discover
how they work.
A transformer is made of three main parts: a primary circuit, a soft magnetic core
(often made of iron), and a secondary circuit. They are often depicted like below in
exam papers.
Your teacher will show you how the transformer works. In this demonstration the
primary coil of the transformer is connected to the 240 V mains A.C. supply.
Primary coil
Insulated wires
To 240 V A.C. mains

Iron core 2.5 V bulb
1. Record what happens after each turn of wire is added to the secondary coil.
2. Write down what happens when an iron bar is placed across the U- shaped core.
72
3. The current in the primary core is an alternating one. What does this tell you
about the magnetic field in the iron core?
4. Explain why is there a current in the lamp.
5. Why does the lamp get brighter when more turns are added?
The number of turns on the

primary and secondary coils
can be changed.
Your teacher will demonstrate

this experiment. Consider what
happens to the voltage across
each coil when the number of
coils is changed. Record your observations in the table below.
Number of Number of turns Input voltage Output voltage

turns on on secondary (V) (V)
primary coil coil
Can you see a link between number of turns on the coil and voltage?
73
In the space below, write the equation linking voltage and number of turns in each of
the coils of a transformer.
There is no triangle for this equation as it contains four variables! It is quite a difficult
equation, so here is an example of how to use it.
Worked Example
A transformer has a primary coil of 50 turns and a secondary coil of 200 turns. If the input
voltage is 10 V a.c., calculate the output voltage.
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆 200

= ∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = × 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 ∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = × 10 ∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 = 40𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 50
Equation Re-arrange Insert numbers Answer with unit
This equation assumes that the transformer is 100% efficient, which is not really the
case. How can you increase the efficiency of a transformer?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
74
Practice questions
For each question show all your working clearly.
1. For each of the four transformers shown, calculate the output voltage.
a.
primary secondary
2 V a.c. Vs = ?
20 turns 80 turns
b.
primary secondary
2 V a.c. 0.5 V a.c.
80 turns Ns = ?
c.
primary secondary
Vp = ? 4.8 V a.c.
2000 turns 40 turns
d.
primary secondary
24 V d.c. Vs = ?
100 turns 50 turns
2. A 3 V lamp is to be run from a 24 V A.C. supply. There are 480 turns on the
primary. How many turns are on the secondary coil?
75
3. a) What material is used for the core of a transformer?
b) What form of energy is used in the energy transfer between the 2 coils?
c) Why does a transformer not work with D.C.?
4. A transformer is used to light a 12 V, 24 W

bulb. The primary coil has 1000 turns with
an input voltage of 240 V A.C.
a) Is this a step-up or step-down transformer?
b) Calculate the number of turns on the secondary coil.
c) Calculate the current in the lamp.
d) State the power delivered by the secondary to the lamp.
e) If the transformer is 100% efficient, what is the power in the primary?
f) In this case, calculate the current flowing in the primary.
g) If the transformer was only 50% efficient, how would this affect the primary
current?
76
Practice questions
1 The diagram shows a transformer.
input output
voltage voltage
primary coil secondary coil

800 turns 40 turns
The input voltage is 240 V.
What is the output voltage?
A 6.0 V B 12 V C 20 V D 40 V
2 An input voltage of 10 V is supplied to the primary coil of a transformer. An output voltage of 40 V

is produced across the secondary coil.
The 10 V supply at the primary coil is now replaced with a 40 V supply.
What is the new output voltage across the secondary coil?
A 10 V B 40 V C 70 V D 160 V
3 The diagram shows a simple transformer with an input of 240 V and an output of 40 V. There are
600 turns on the primary coil.
600
input 240 V 40 V output
turns
How many turns are there on the secondary coil?
A 100 B 320 C 400 D 3600
77
4 The charger for a mobile phone contains a transformer. Fig. 9.1 shows a simple
transformer.
core
240 V a.c. output

voltage
Fig. 9.1
(a) State the name of the material used in the core.
...............................................................................................................................................[1]
(b) (i) The transformer has 36 000 turns on the primary coil and 900 turns on the secondary
coil. The input voltage is 240 V.
Calculate the output voltage.
output voltage = ................................................... V [3]
(ii) State whether this transformer is step-up or step-down. Give a reason for your answer.
...........................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................[1]
(c) Transformers can produce high voltages for transmitting electricity from power stations to
towns.
Describe the advantages of transmitting electricity at a high voltage.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................[2]
[Total: 7]
78
5 A 240 V a.c. mains supply is connected to the primary coil of the transformer shown in
Fig. 10.1. A lamp that gives full brightness with a 6 V supply is connected to the secondary
coil.
240 V 6V
mains lamp
8000 turns soft iron
Fig. 10.1
(a) Name a suitable material from which the coils may be made.
...................................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) State the name given to the part of the transformer that is made of soft iron (see
Fig. 10.1).
...................................................................................................................................... [1]
(c) Calculate the number of turns of wire in the secondary coil that will enable the lamp to
light at full brightness.
number of turns = .................................................. [3]
(d) State what would happen to the lamp if the number of turns in the secondary coil was
(i) much less than that calculated in (c),
.............................................................................................................................. [1]
(ii) much more than that calculated in (c).
.............................................................................................................................. [1]
[Total: 7]
79
Name: _____________________
Class: __________
P8: Atomic Physics
IGCSE 2021
80
Year 11 Physics P8: Atomic Physics
P8: Atomic Physics

0654 Physics
P8 Atomic physics
P8.1 The nuclear atom

Core
1 Describe the composition of the nucleus in
terms of protons and neutrons
2 Use the terms proton number Z and nucleon
number A
3 Use and explain the term isotope
4 Use and interpret the term nuclide and use the
nuclide notation 𝐴𝐴𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋
P8.2 Radioactivity
P8.2.1 Characteristics of the three kinds of
emission
Core Supplement
1 Describe the random nature of radioactive
emission
2 Identify alpha (α), beta (β ) and gamma (γ)- 3 Describe the deflection of α-particles,
emissions by recalling β-particles and γ-rays in electric fields and in
– their nature magnetic fields
– their relative ionising effects
– their relative penetrating abilities
(β are not included: β -particles will be taken to
+
refer to β –)
4 Recognise the general term ionising radiation 5 Describe and explain examples of practical
can be used to describe radioactive emissions applications of α, β and γ-emissions
P8.2.2 Detection of radioactivity
Core
1 Demonstrate understanding of background
radiation
2 Describe the detection of α-particles,
β-particles and γ-rays
P8.2.3 Radioactive decay
Core Supplement
1 State the meaning of radioactive decay
2 Use word equations to represent changes in 3 Use nuclide notation in equations to show α
the composition of the nucleus when particles and β decay
are emitted
81
P8.2.4 Half-life
Core
1 Use the term half-life in simple calculations
which may involve information in tables or
decay curves
P8.2.5 Safety precautions
Core
1 Recall the effects of ionising radiations on living
things
2 Describe how radioactive materials are
handled, used and stored in a safe way
P8 equations
Supplementary
Half-life equation
Alpha decay
Beta decay
Gamma decay
82
1. Atomic Structure
The history of the atom
In ancient times, Chinese scientists thought that

all matter was made of five elements: air, water,
earth, fire, and metal. A few thousand years
ago, ancient Greeks came up with the idea of
atoms (the word 'atom' means 'indivisible' in
Greek). This is a model which has evolved over
time.
In 1803, John Dalton argued that the idea of

atoms could explain the differences between
different elements. He thought of atoms as balls
that could not be broken up.
From about 1870 onwards many scientists studied cathode rays. In 1895 in Paris,
Jean Perrin showed that the cathode rays were in fact particles. In 1897 in
Cambridge, J.J.Thomson managed to make measurements of these particles, which
he called electrons. From his results it seemed that the electrons were smaller than
atoms (about 2000 times smaller than the mass of the lightest atom, hydrogen). This
would mean that the atom could be broken up into smaller parts.
In 1904 Thomson suggested a new model of the atom. This was his 'plum-pudding'
model. He thought the negative electrons were embedded in a positive blob of
matter, as in the picture above.
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford, from New Zealand,

designed an experiment that showed that atoms
have a tiny positive nucleus (with most of the
mass), surrounded by tiny negative electrons.
In 1919, Rutherford discovered the nucleus of an
atom contained a positive particle, which was given
the name ‘proton’.
There still remained one problem; the total mass of

the protons and electrons in the atom did not add
up to the total mass of the atom.
It was not until 1932, when James Chadwick discovered neutrons, that we could
properly explain the mass of nuclei and isotopes.
83
Practice questions
1. Explain why J. J. Thomson's discovery in 1897 was important.
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2. What are the main differences between Thomson's plum-pudding model and
Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom?
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3. People sometimes say that the structure of an atom is like the structure of the
Solar System. In what ways are they (a) similar (b) different?
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4. Why did scientists suspect that the nucleus contained another particle as well as
the proton?
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5. Draw a diagram of a carbon - 14 atom, including the correct number of proton,

neutrons and electrons.
Extension task: Create a poster which is a timeline of how our ideas about the atom
have developed, including extra dates and people not included above.
84
Isotopes
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to:
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What is an isotope?
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Symbol Meaning
In the Periodic Table,

X
many symbols are used
which will help us talk
about isotopes. Complete
their meanings in this A
table.
Questions
1. An isotope of carbon contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons.
a) What is its atomic number? ___________________________________
b) What is its mass number? ____________________________________
c) Write down the symbol for this nuclide. ___________________________
d) How many electrons does this isotope have if it is neutral? ___________
2. Sketch a diagram of the isotope in question 1.
85
3. Complete this table.
Number of Number of Number of Atomic Mass

Symbol
protons neutrons electrons number number
4 He 2 2
2
12 C
6
6 8
16 O
8
8 17
54 Fe
26
30 26
4. Which of the atoms in this table are isotopes of the same element?
5. Chlorine has an atomic mass of 37.5. Can you figure out why?
6. How many elements have isotopes?
86
2. Radioactive Decay
Some isotopes are unstable. These decay to become a different isotope. Sometimes
these “daughter nuclei” are more stable, but sometimes it takes several radioactive
decays before a stable isotope are reached.
There are three possible ways for isotopes to decay. These are alpha, beta and
gamma decay. You need to know their properties.
One of the important things about alpha, beta and gamma radiation is how
penetrative they are. Watch the demonstration and complete the diagram below.
87
You also need to know what alpha, beta and gamma are composed of, their
respective masses and charges, and how ionising they are. Fill in the table.
88
Background radiation
Your teacher has probably shown you that even when no radioactive sources are
nearby, the counter is still slowly ticking away. This is background radiation. But
where does it all come from? There are many sources of background radiation all
around us every second of every day. Use the circle below to create a pie chart of
the sources of background radiation, anotating it where necessary.
For the most part this radiation is harmless, however, in some cases precautions
have to be taken. Research the following sources of background radiation and
describe precautions that people might have to take.
Source Danger Precautions
Radon gas
Nuclear
fallout
(Chernobyl
etc.)
89
Extension
Now that you know what radioactive decay is, you can complete the below
equations.
Alpha decay
Example decay: General decay equation:
238 ____
92𝑈𝑈 → 90𝑇𝑇ℎ + __4𝛼𝛼 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 → 𝑌𝑌 + 𝛼𝛼
Notes:
Beta decay
14 14 ___
6𝐶𝐶 → ___𝑁𝑁 + −1 𝛽𝛽 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 → 𝑌𝑌 + 𝛽𝛽
Notes:
Gamma decay
𝐴𝐴
125
53𝐼𝐼 → 125
53𝑁𝑁 + ___
___𝛾𝛾 𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 → 𝐴𝐴𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 + ___
___𝛾𝛾
Notes:
90
3. Half-Life
Alpha, beta and gamma decay are all spontaneous and random events. Define these
words:
Spontaneous
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___________________________________________________________________
Random
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We can use dice to model the way in which radioactive isotopes decay. Just as there
is a certain probability that a radioactive nucleus will decay in a certain time, there is
a certain probability of a certain number being rolled on a dice (e.g. there is a 1 in 6
chance of rolling the number 1). Both processes are random (though the dice roll is
not spontaneous – can you explain why?)
Start with 100 dice which you roll in a box. After each roll, remove all of the dice that
show the number 1. These dice have “decayed”, as a radioactive nucleus might have
decayed; they are now a different element. Continue with the dice that have not yet
“decayed.”
Number of Number of
Number of undecayed dice Number of undecayed dice
Rolls (time) remaining Rolls (time) remaining
0 100 8
1 9
2 10
3 11
4 12
5 13
6 14
7 15
91
Plot a graph to show how the number of dice remaining (on the y-axis) decreases
with the number of rolls (on the x-axis). This graph models how the number of
undecayed radioactive nuclei in a radioactive sample will reduce over a period of
time.
Draw a line of best fit. What is the name of this type of relationship?
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Find the point on your graph where the number of dice remaining falls to half of the
original number. How many throws of the dice did it take?
___________________________________________________________________
Ask two other groups for their number. What are they?
___________________________________________________________________
You have found the half-life of your dice. Define the term half-life for radioactive
isotopes here:
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How long will it take for the “radioactivity” of your dice to drop to zero?
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92
Practice questions
There is space on the next page for your answers.
The table below shows the half-lives of some common radioactive isotopes.
Source Half life

Caesium-137 30 years What do you notice about the range of
Carbon-14 5800 years half-lives?
Cobalt-60 5.26 years
Iodine-131 8 days _______________________________
Iridium-192 74 days _______________________________
Polonium-212 0.3 microseconds
Radon-222 3.8 days
Uranium-238 4500 million years
1. The activity of a sample of iodine-131 is 160 counts per minute.
a) What will its activity be after 8 days? After 24 days?
b) After how long will its activity be 10 counts per minute?
c) Iodine-131 is used as a 'tracer' in medicine to investigate the activity of the

thyroid. A gamma camera tracks the iodine as it passes round the body.
Why does the half-life of iodine make it much more suitable for this purpose
than, say, uranium-238?
2. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere always contains a small percentage of

radioactive carbon (carbon-14). Plants take up carbon, including this
radioactive carbon, as they grow. Animals take in carbon when they eat
plants.
a) Draw a graph to show how the activity of carbon-14 changes with time.
Start with 100 units of radioactivity. Plot for 5 half-lives.
b) Calculate how much carbon-14 will remain after 1, 2 and 3 half-lives.
c) The carbon in some grains of barley found during an archaeological dig

was only 70 per cent as active as the carbon from recently harvested
barley. How old are the barley grains found in the dig? You can use your
graph to help answer this question.
93
You can figure out how many undecayed nuclei are left by halving the original
number of nuclei for every half-life that has passed. Alternatively, you can use the
1
mathematical relationship 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁0 2𝑛𝑛
, where N is the number of nuclei remaining, N0
is the original number of nuclei and n is the number of half-lives. This is not required
for iGCSE, so you can decide which method to use.
3. Fluorine-21 has a half-life of approximately 5 seconds. What fraction of the

original nuclei would remain after 1 minute?
4. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days. What fraction of the original sample would
remain at the end of 32 days?
5. The half-life of chromium-51 is 28 days. If the sample contained 510 grams,

how much chromium would remain after 56 days? How much would remain
after 1 year? How much was present 168 days ago?
6. If 20.0 g of a radioactive isotope are present at 1:00 PM and 5.0 g remain at

2:00 PM, what is the half-life of the isotope?
7. The half-life of Uranium-238 is 4.5 billion years and the age of earth is 4.5x
109 years. What fraction of Uranium-238 that was present when Earth was
formed still remains?
8. Chromium-48 decays. After 6 half-lives, what fraction of the original nuclei

would remain?
9. The half-life of iodine-125 is 60 days. What fraction of iodine-125 nuclides

would be left after 360 days?
10. Titanium-51 decays with a half-life of 6 minutes. What fraction of titanium

would remain after one hour?
11. A medical institution requests 1 g of bismuth-214, which has a half-life of 20

min. How many grams of bismuth-214 must be prepared if the shipping time is
two hours?
12. The half-life of radium-226 is 1602 years. If you have 500 grams of radium
today how many grams would have been present 9612 years ago?
94
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95
Dangers and Uses of Radioactivity
Radioactivity is ionising. You have seen this word before; define it again below.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
When handling radioactive sources, certain precautions should be taken. When your
teacher showed you radioactive sources, they followed certain safety procedures;
outline them here.
Danger Precaution
As well as being dangerous, radioactive sources can also be useful (even lifesaving).
Research the below uses of radioactivity, draw a diagram and write a brief
description of how it is used.
Use Drawing Explanation
Smoke
alarm
96
Use Drawing Explanation
Foil
manufacture
Medical
imaging
Cleaning
surgical
equipment
Transporting
food
Tracing
leaks in
underground
pipes
97
Practice Questions
1 The symbol for a radioactive nuclide of carbon is

14
6 C.
How many neutrons are in its nucleus?
A 6 B 8 C 14 D 20
2 A student measures the rate at which ionising radiation is emitted from a radioactive substance.
He places a detector at different distances from the radioactive source.
radioactive
source counter
detector
distance d
The table shows how the reading on the counter varies with distance d.
The readings on the counter are corrected for background radiation.
distance d / cm 0 2
counter reading / counts per minute 1250 115 0 0
Which type of ionising radiation is being emitted by the substance?
A α-particles
B β-particles
C γ-rays
D X-rays
98
3 A nucleus of americium-241 has the nuclide notation shown.
241
Am
95
(a) (i) Determine the number of neutrons in a nucleus of americium-241.
number of neutrons = ........................................................ [1]
(ii) Determine the charge on a nucleus of americium-241.
charge = ........................................................ [2]
(b) Americium-241 decays by emitting α-particles.
Put a tick in the box next to each correct statement.
α-particles are electromagnetic waves.
α-particles are fast-moving electrons.
α-particles are helium nuclei.
α-particles are stopped by a sheet of paper.
α-particles can pass through 3 cm of aluminium. [2]
(c) Americium-241 has a half-life of 432 years.

A sample contains 16 mg of americium-241.
Calculate the time it takes until only 4.0 mg of americium-241 are left in the sample.
time = .............................................. years [2]
[Total: 7]
99

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P5: Electricity and Magnetism

P5: Electricity and Magnetism

P5.2.2 Current, potential

Complete the equations in the boxes.

usually carried by ___________. Protons have a ___________ charge. Two of the

A typical lightning strike is

Why does lightning come

This Van de Graaff generator uses friction to

When someone is touching the Van de Graaff

Why do the cupcake holders fly away?

Why does the person’s hair stand on end?

You already know a lot about magnets. Finsh these sentences:

_________, _________ and _________.

The Earth’s Magnetic Field

What does soft magnetic mean?

How can an induced magnet be demagnetised?

Use Description Website

A It attracts ferrous materials.

2 Which procedure may be used to demagnetise a steel bar?

3 Two iron nails hang from a bar magnet.

Which diagram shows the magnetic poles induced in the nails?

What force is there between

(i) two N poles, .......................................................................................................................

(ii) two S poles, .......................................................................................................................

(iii) a N pole and a S pole? .......................................................................................................

(iii) The iron bar is reversed end-to-end.

Magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

Magnetic field around a coil of wire

If we coil wire (we call this a

What can we do to make the magnetic field around a solenoid stronger?

Testing the strength of an electromagnet

Make an electromagnet by coiling approximately 100cm of wire around an iron rod.

2. Remember to change only one variable at a time.

What is your conclusion?

 A strong electromagnet is used to attract pins.

What happens when the current in the coil is halved?

A No pins are attracted.

Which metal is suitable for each of these purposes?

P6: Electric Currents

P6.3 Electrical Energy Supplement

1 Recall and use the equations P = IV and E = IVt

P6.4 Dangers of electricity

Equation that links

1. Electric Circuit Symbols

In this lesson you will

Name of component Diagram Description

Now draw the following circuits:

Electrons are negatively charged. Charge is measured in units called coulombs, C.

What is an electrical current and how is it related to charge?

Answer these questions in the space provided.

1) In a circuit 2 coulombs of charge move past a particular point in 2 seconds. What

3) A current of 3 A flows for 100 seconds in a circuit connected to a motor. How

5) A vacuum cleaner has a current of 7 A. While it is switched on, 70 C of charge

Rules for current in series and parallel circuits

Set up this series circuit and record the ammeter readings.

Ammeter 1: From this experiment I can

Now set up this parallel circuit. Ammeters 1 and 4 have

Ammeter 4: From this experiment I can

usually carried by _. Protons have a _ charge. Two of the

_____, _ and _____.

A strong electromagnet is used to attract pins.