First World War (1914 -1919)

CAUSES
System of Alliances
There were many causes for the World War I. The most important cause was the system of secret
alliances. Before 1914 Europe was divided into two camps. It was Germany which created the
division in European politics before World War I. In order to isolate France, Germany entered in
to an alliance with Austria. Bismarck formed the three Emperors League by making alliance
with Russia. Later Germany did not care for Russia. Hence Russia left. But Germany continued
its alliance with Austria alone. This was known as Dual alliance. After Italy joined in this
alliance, it became a Triple alliance. In the meantime Russia began to lean towards France. In
1894 there came Franco-Russian alliance against Austro-German alliance. It was at this time
England followed a policy of splendid isolation. She also felt that she was all alone. First she
wanted to join with Germany. When this became a failure, she entered into an alliance with Japan
in 1902. In 1904 she made alliance with France. In 1907 Russia joined this alliance. This had
resulted in Triple Entente. Thus Europe was divided into two camps. The secret nature of these
alliances brought about the war of 1914.
Militarism
The countries in Europe had been increasing their armies and navies. This was the main reason
for universal fear, hatred and suspicions among the countries of Europe. In Europe, England and
Germany were superior in Navy. There were competitions between these two countries in naval
armaments. For every ship built by Germany, two ships were built by England.
Narrow Nationalism was also a cause for the war. The love of the country demanded the hatred
of another. For instance, love of Germany demanded the hatred of France. Likewise the French
people hated the German people. In Eastern Europe narrow nationalism played a greater role. The
Serbians hated Austria- Hungary. The desire for the people of France to get back Alsace-Lorraine
was also a cause for the outbreak of First World War. It was Bismarck who had taken away
Alsace-Lorraine from France and annexed them with Germany in 1871. The result was that there
grew animosities between these two countries. It was this reason that forced Germany to take
steps to isolate France by making alliances with other countries.
William II, the Emperor of Germany himself was a cause for the First World War. He wanted to
make Germany a stronger power. He was not prepared to make any compromise in international
affairs. He was mistaken in assessing Great Britain’s strength. It was a misunderstanding of the
British character by William II that was responsible for the war.
Prussian spirit by Germany was also a cause for war. The Prussians were taught that war was a
legal in the world. War was the national industry of Prussia. The younger generation of Germany
was indoctrinated with such a philosophy of war.
Public Opinion
The position of public opinion by the newspapers was also a cause. Often, the newspapers tried to
inflame nationalist feeling by misrepresenting the situations in other countries. Ambassadors and
cabinet ministers admitted the senseless attitude of the leading news papers in their own
countries.
The desire of Italy to recover the Trentino and the area around the port of Trieste was also a
cause for war. The Italians considered that these areas were inhabited by Italians. But they were
still part and parcel of Austria-Hungary. They cried for the redemption of these territories. Italy
also entered into a competition with Austria to control the Adriatic Sea. As Austria was not
prepared to put up with the competition, there arose bitterness in the relations of these two
countries.
The Eastern Question was also a factor for the war. This complicated the situation in the
Balkans. The misrule of Turkey resulted in discontentment. There was a rivalry between Greece,

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Serbia and Bulgaria for the control of Macedonia which had a mixed population. On the occasion
of Bosnian crises Russia supported Serbia. Pan Slavism also created complications. The questions
Bosnia - Herzegovina in the Balkans was also similar to the problem of Alsace-Lorraine. Bosnia
and Herzegovina were given to Austria-Hungary by the Congress of Berlin in 1878. This was
strongly opposed by Serbia. A strong agitation was started in Serbia to separate these provinces
from Austria-Hungary and unite them with Serbia. This created rivalry between Serbia and
Austria- Hungary. This became very keen after 1909. Serbia also received moral support from her
big brother Russia (The Serbs and Russians belong to Slav Race).
Immediate Cause
The immediate cause was the assassination of Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand who was heir to
the Austrian throne. Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by Serbians in
the Bosnian capital Sarajevo when they paid a visit to this city on 28 th June 1914. The news of this
murder shocked many countries. Austria-Hungary was already sick of Serbia and she decided to
take advantage of the new situation to crush her. The murder of their crown prince and his wife
resulted in an ultimatum being sent to Serbia for immediate compliance of certain terms. Serbia’s
reply did not pacify Austria-Hungary. Hence, Austria-Hungary backed by Germany declared war
on Serbia. Russia mobilised her forces in favour of Serbia.
Course of the War
During the war Germany and her allies were called Central Powers. England and her allies were
called Allied Powers. Germany entered the war to defend Austria. Shortly all the powers in the
hostile camps were automatically drawn into the war. Turkey and Bulgaria joined the war on the
side of Germany. Italy left the Triple Alliance and joined the opposite camp with the idea of
recovering Italian territories under Austrian control. England joined the war against Germany.
There was bitter fighting on the French soil. The Battle of Verdun decided the fortunes of the
war in favour of the Allies. Germany started submarine warfare in a large scale. All the laws
relating to naval warfare were thrown out. Russia fought on the side of Allies up to 1917. The
Bolshevik regime wanted peace with Germany. Thus the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed
between Russia and Germany. The Lusitania ship was drowned by a German submarine and
consequently many Americans lost their lives. This resulted in the declaration of war against
Germany by the U.S.A. In spite of best efforts, Germany could not stand and ultimately she
surrendered in November 1919. The German Emperor Kaiser William lost all hopes of winning
the war. He abdicated his throne and fled to Holland. The German army signed the armistice
agreement on November 11, 1918 to mark their surrender to the Allies. The allies of Germany
had earlier suffered defeat at the hands of the Allied powers.
Results of the War
The Great War took a heavy toll of lives. It is estimated that about ten million lives were lost and
twenty million people have been wounded. People all over the world suffered untold miseries.
There was a large scale damage to civil property. It is estimated that the direct cost of the war
reached just over two hundred billion dollars and the indirect cost more than a hundred and fifty
billion dollars. A large variety of deadly weapons such as incendiary bombs, grenades and poison
gases were used. Tanks, submarines and aircrafts were also used. The war wrought its havoc on
the economics of the participating countries. It may be remembered that about 25 nations had
joined the allies at the time of the outbreak of war. The victors felt the devastating effects of the
war even before the cessation. All these nations were burdened with the national debts. The world
economy was in shambles. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June th

1919. It was a dictated peace and Germany had by then become even too weak to protest. She lost
everything. Germany and her allies suffered most since they had to pay heavy sums to the
victorious allies as reparation debts. Austria Hungary signed the Treaty of St. Germaine.
Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon with the allies in 1920. Bulgaria had accepted the Treaty
of Neuliy in 1919. Turkey, which sided with Germany during the war, signed the Treaty of
Sevres in 1920.

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 The Russian Revolution of 1917

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a very important political event of the 20 th Century.
For the first time, Karl Marx’s idea of socialism and Proletariat revolution became a reality.
Russia was a big and powerful country. Even Napoleon Bonaparte could not conquer Russia in
1812. However, during the beginning of the 20 Century Russia was no longer a powerful
th

country. During this time Russia was ruled by the Romanov dynasty. Tsar Nicholas II ruled
Russia at the time of the Revolution. During his rule Russia faced serious domestic and
international problems. eventually, a series of political events led to the overthrow of the Tsarist
rule by October Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik Party headed by Lenin led the revolution. Thus,
Russia became USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics], which lasted until its disintegration
in 1991.

Causes of the Russian Revolution

Political Causes:
Politically the Tsar’s rule was very weak. Russia fought a war with Japan in 1904-05. Small
Asian Country Japan defeated the mighty European country Russia in the Russo-Japanese war.
This lowered the international and domestic prestige of Russia. The Tsars believed in the divine
right theory of kingship. Tsar Nicholas II was autocratic in his administration. The people had
many grievances. The members of zemstoves and Dumas wanted liberal reforms from the Tsar.
But Tsar was not prepared to sanction any reforms. Meantime, the working class of St. Petersburg
went on strike. The striking workers went on a procession to Tsar’s place to present a petition to
redress their grievances. They were led by father Gapon. When the workers reached Tsar’s palace
the guards fired on the unarmed crowed. This event is known as “Bloody Sunday” as it took
place on a Sunday, 22nd January 1905. This is also known as 1905 Revolution. This event was
indeed a prelude to the October Revolution of 1917. The Tsarist court was under the evil
influence of Rusputin. The Tsarina was strongly under his influence and at times the
administration was affected by his influence. Hence, the nobles poisoned Rusputin to death.

Economic Causes

The economic causes of the Russian Revolution largely originated in Russia’s slightly outdated
economy. Russia’s agriculture was largely based on independent peasants. They did not own
modern machinery. Russian agriculture suffered from cold climate. Russia’s agriculture season
was only 4-6 months. The famine of 1891 had left many peasants in poverty. The rapid
industrialization of Russia also resulted in urban overcrowding and poor conditions for urban
industrial workers. Between 1890 and 1910, the population of the capital of St Petersburg
increased from 1,033,600 to 1,905,600, with Moscow experiencing similar growth. In one 1904
survey, it was found that an average of sixteen people shared each apartment in St Petersburg,
with six people per room. There was also no running water, and piles of human waste were a
threat to the health of the workers. Hence, the workers in general were in a discontented situation.
Rise of Socialist Party
One of the most important events in the history of socialist movement was the formation in 1864
of the International Working Men’s Association or the First International. During the short
period of its existence, the International exercised a tremendous influence on workers’
movements in Europe.To unite the socialist parties in various countries into an international
organisation, a Congress was held in Paris on 14th July 1889, the centenary of the French
Revolution of 1789. The result of this Congress was what has come to be known as the Second
International. The formation of the Second International marked a new stage in the history of
socialism. On the first of May 1890, millions of workers all over Europe and America struck

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work and held massive demonstrations. Since then the first of May is observed as the
international working class day all over the world. In Russia when the workers’ organizations
were set up they were dominated by Marx’s ideas on socialism. In 1883, the Russian Social
Democratic Party was formed by George Plekhanov, a follower of Marx. This party along with
many other socialist groups was united into the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898.
However, the party was soon split over questions of organization and policies. One group which
was in a minority called the Mensheviks [Russian it means minority]. The majority party was
called as the Bolsheviks. The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, popularly
known as Lenin. He is regarded as one of the greatest leaders of the socialist movement after
Marx and Engels. He devoted himself to the task of organizing the Bolshevik Party as an
instrument for bringing about revolution. His name has become inseparable from the revolution
of 1917. The Russian socialists, including Plekhanov and Lenin, had played an important part in
the Second International. Besides the Menshevik and the Bolshevik parties, which were the
political parties of industrial workers, there was the Socialist Revolutionary Party which voiced
the demands of the peasantry.

World War I

Russia had a very adverse history of military failures. Even before the outbreak of the
First World War, Russia had lost a war with Japan in 1904–05. Most of Russia’s fleet was sunk
by the Japanese in that war. While the Russian army enjoyed some initial successes against
Austria-Hungary in 1914, Russia’s deficiencies — particularly regarding the equipment of its
soldiers and the lack of advanced technology (aeroplanes, telephones) proved the causes for
Russia’s failures.
Russia’s first major battle was a disaster. In the 1914 Battle of Tannenberg, over 120,000
Russian troops were killed, wounded, or captured, while Germany suffered only 20,000
casualties. Whatever nationalistic or patriotic support the Russian government had gained in the
early stages of the war had been lost. In 1915, Nicholas had taken direct command of the army.
The superior German army - better led, better trained, better supplied - was effective against the
ill-equipped Russian forces. By the end of October 1916, Russia had lost between 1.6 and 1.8
million soldiers, with an additional two million prisoners of war and one million missing. Thus, a
total of nearly five million men lost. These were heavy losses. Mutinies began to occur in the
Russian army. Soldiers went hungry and lacked shoes, munitions, and even weapons. Nicholas
was blamed for all these crises. As this discontent grew, the State Duma issued a warning to
Nicholas to grant constitutional form of government. Nicholas ignored them. As a result, Russia’s
Tsarist regime collapsed a few months later during the February Revolution of 1917.

February Revolution
The February Revolution was the result of the political, economic and social causes
mentioned above. On the eve of the February Revolution there was food shortage in the city.
People protested against war. As the protests grew, various political reformists (both liberal and
radical left) joined together against the Tsar regime. In February the protests in Petrograd turned
violent as large numbers of city residents rioted and clashed with police and soldiers. There was
also total strike. Eventually the bulk of the soldiers garrisoned in Petrograd joined the protesters.
On 12th March, 1917 the capital city of Petersburg (renamed Petrograd and now Leningrad) fell
into the hands of the revolutionaries. Soon the revolutionaries took Moscow, the Tsar Nicholas II
gave up his throne and the first provisional Government was formed on 15 March. The fall of the
Tszar is known as the February Revolution because, according to the old Russian calendar, it
occurred on 27 February 1917.

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Kerensky’s Provisional Government

The most important demands of the people were fourfold: peace, land to the tiller, control of
industry by workers, and equal status for the non-Russian nationalities. The Provisional
Government under the leadership of Kerensky did not implement any of these demands and lost
the support of the people. Lenin, who was in exile in Switzerland at the time of the February
Revolution, returned to Russia in April. Lenin gave his “April Theses”. This promised people
what they wanted. Under his leadership the Bolshevik Party put forward clear policies to end the
war, transfer land to the peasants and advance the slogan “All power to the Soviets”. Lenin and
his trusted associate Leon Trotsky led the October Revolution.

October Revolution of 1917

The unpopularity of the Kerensky’s government led to its collapse on 7 th November 1917, when a
group of soldiers occupied the Winter Palace, the seat of the Kerensky Government. An All-
Russian Congress of Soviets met on the same day and assumed full political power. This event
which took place on 7 November is known as the October Revolution because of the
corresponding date of the old Russian calendar, 25 October.

Results of the Revolution

Russia withdrew from the First World War. Later, formal peace was signed with
Germany later. The estates of the landlords, the Church and the Tsar were confiscated and
transferred to peasants’ societies to be allotted to peasant families to be cultivated without hired
labour. The control of industries was transferred to committees of workers. By the middle of
1918, banks and insurance companies, large industries, mines, water transport and railways were
nationalised. Foreign debts were refused and foreign investments were confiscated. A Declaration
of the Rights of Peoples was issued conferring the right of self-determination upon all
nationalities. A new government, called the Council of People’s Commissars, headed by Lenin
was founded. These first acts of the new government began the era of socialism.

The first Soviet constitution was adoped on July 10, 1918. It created the Russian Soviet
Federated Socialist Republic. Later, on December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics came into being. However, soon the new Soviet state was involved in a civil war. The
officers of the army of the fallen Tsar organized an armed rebellion against the Soviet state.
Troops of foreign powers—England, France, Japan, the United States and others— joined them.
War was fought till 1920. By this time the ‘Red Army’ of the new state was in control of almost
all the lands of the old Czarist empire. Indeed, a revolutionary wave lasted until 1923.

Mussolini and the Fascist Italy

Causes for the Growth of Fascism in Italy
Italy attended the Paris Peace Conference with great expectations. The secret Treaty of London
which was signed in 1915 with the Allies gave Italy great hope. At Paris, Orlando presented the
demands of Italy. But the US President Woodrow Wilson rejected the Treaty of London. Italian
claims over territories on the Adriatic Sea, some Turkish provinces and Albania in the Balkan
were all turned down. Thus Italy gained nothing in the Paris Peace Conference. “Italy had
won the war but had lost peace”. Italy was disappointed. The representatives of Italy were

5
forced to boycott the conference. They felt that the Allies had purposely deceived Italy. This
discontentment created a feeling of revolt among the middle class youth. They decided to form an
organization and unite in order to avenge their national humiliation and treachery.
Economic Condition
During the war, Italy was forced to spend huge amount more than her national income.
Unemployment prevailed. People believed that government was responsible for such a situation.
They wanted n alternative government. The rise of the Fascist Party was also a result of above
dissatisfaction.
Spread of Socialism
The unemployment problem, poverty and inflation helped the spread of Socialism. The believers
in Marxism had a political party called Social Democrats of Italy. In the 1919 election they
gained 156 seats out of 574. This party helped a lot for the rise and development of Fascism in
Italy.
Rise of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini was the originator of the idea of Fascism. He was born in 1883. Mussolini’s
father an ironsmith, was a follower of Socialism. Hence, Mussolini was influenced by the
socialistic ideology. He was a school teacher a trade unionist and a journalist. He was imprisoned
in 1908 for revolutionary ideas. In 1912 he started the editing of Avanthi, a socialist journal. He
was a bitter opponent of the Church. When the First World War broke out, the Italian
Government decided not to take part in the War. But Mussolini propagated that the Italian
Government should immediately join the war in favour of the Allies. For that Mussolini was
punished. But later Italy was forced to join the war on the side of the Allies. As a result Mussolini
became popular. He also participated in the war as a soldier. The Bolshevik Revolution took
place in Russia in 1917. The people of Italy also were influenced by the revolution. The
communists of Italy also were planning for a massive revolution. Mussolini, who was a staunch
opponent of Bolshevism, decided to start a new party to fight Communism. In march 1919 the
Fascist Party was established under his leadership. The members wore black shirts and were
equipped with arms. The party had its own flag. The members were well disciplined and
Mussolini was their chief commander.
In the first party convention of Milan, Mussolini announced the programmes and Charter of
demands of the party. They were:
·Nationalisation of factories
·Confiscation of surplus money from the capitalists
·Universal Franchise
·Forfeiture of the Church property
·Eight hours work in factories
·Framing of a new constitution.
These demands of the Fascist Party soon achieved popularity in Italy. The number of members
increased very rapidly. In 1919 there were only seventeen thousand members in the party. The
number increased to 3 lakhs in 1922. The Fascists captured the offices of the Socialist and the
Communist parties by force. In October 1922, the Fascist Party had its party convention at
Naples. A Charter of Demands was passed at the convention. They include induction of Fascist
members in the Cabinet, new election to the Legislatures and the adoption of a vigorous foreign
policy. But the government refused to concede. The Fascists therefore marched on to Rome,
under the leadership of Mussolini. They captured all the government officers. The government
asked the king Victor Immanuel III to promulgate martial law. Mussolini was invited to form the
ministry.
Mussolini as the Prime Minster of Italy
Mussolini was an action oriented Prime Minister. He took the following steps for the
reorganization of administration.

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_ The dacoits living in the interiors of Naples and Sicily were crushed.
_ The economic and social conditions of the labourers were improved.
_ Trade Unions were abolished.
_ The entire powers of the Parliament were snatched.
_ Members faithful to the leader alone were appointed as ministers and officers.
Elections were conducted under the basis of the changed law. The Fascist Party got a complete
majority in the National Parliament. After elections, Mussolini adopted some measures to crush
opponents.
_ All local bodies were suspended.
_ Only Fascist lawyers were allowed to practice.
_ In 1926, all political parties were banned.
_ The cabinet system of government came to an end.
_ Freedom of the Press was curtailed.
_ Unlimited powers were given to the police department.
_ Members of the opposition parties were imprisoned.
Mussolini as the Dictator
Rule of one leader and one party was the ideology of Fascism. He had no faith in democracy and
hated the majority. He believed in the supremacy of the state. The individual had no right. The
individual was merely a means to recognise the existence of the state.

NAZISM IN GERMANY
After the First World War, harsh peace was imposed on Germany and other defeated countries.
This had created intense nationalist upsurge in Germany. The economic breakdown and the rise
of socialist parties paved the way for the rise of Hitler and Nazism in Germany. Similarly such
situation arose in Italy and Japan. This resulted in the Axis formation. The aggressive foreign
policy of Hitler led to the Second World War.
Germany at the End of World War I
At the end of the World War I, the German King William was forced to abdicate A republic was
proclaimed in Germany. Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the Social - Democratic Party formed a
temporary government. This was followed by an election to the Constituent Assembly. The
Social Democratic Party emerged as the largest party. The session of the Constituent Assembly
was held in the city of Weimar. A new constitution was drafted. This is known as Weimar
Constitution.
The Revolt of the Royalists
The Treaty of Versailles was very harsh and humiliating to Germany. It suffered territorial loss.
The policy of disarmament was imposed. The war reparation was enormous. Germany was held
responsible for the World War. This affected the sentiments of the Germans. A group of people
opposed the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. In March 1920, the royalists under the leadership
of Dr. Kapp revolted. But he failed and surrendered before the republican government. The
second such revolt was led by Ludendorff. He was assisted by Hitler. Ludendorff and Hitler were
arrested and imprisoned for 5 years. It was during this jail life, Hitler wrote the famous book
Mein Kampf which later became the Bible of the Nazi party.
Economic Crisis
The post war Germany posed a disastrous financial crisis. For the payment of reparation, the
government was forced to take loans. Factories were closed. Trade and commerce were
deteriorating. Heavy taxes were imposed. To meat the financial crisis the government had no
other option but to issue more and more paper currencies. This resulted into inflation.
Unemployment was rampant.
Reparation

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According to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany, which was held responsible for
the First World War, had to pay a heavy amount of compensation. The Reparation Commission
fixed the amount as 660 million pounds. There was opposition against these provisions. Most of
them argued that, since Germany was not responsible for World War I, there was no need to pay
the heavy amount of war indemnity.
Dawes Plan
The financial crisis in Germany forced the Weimar Republic to make an appeal to the allies for
the reduction of the amount of reparation. As a result a committee consisting of ten members was
formed under the chairmanship of Dawes, an eminent finance specialist of U.S.A. The committee
made some amendments to the provision of the Treaty of Versailles. This known as Dawes Plan
The financial burden of Germany was reduced to certain level. When the problem of reparation
again appeared in 1929 the Young Committee made a plan to solve it.
Hitler and the Nazi Germany
Adolph Hitler was born in April 1889 in a very humble family in an Austrian village. On account
of poverty he could not get proper education. His father wanted to make his son a government
employee. But Hitler was very fond of art from his early days. So he went to Vienna at the age of
18 to learn the art of painting and architecture. While he was in Vienna, he happened to witness
the behavior of the Jews. He felt that the Jews were the moral enemies of individualism,
nationalism and racialism. Further he felt that the Jews were the supporters of the Marxian
ideology. Thus his anti- Jews ideas developed at very early age. Hitler was opposed to democracy
and believed in the supremacy of the German race. During the First World War Hitler joined the
army and participated in the war. In recognition of his service and bravery shown during the war,
he was honoured with the award of the ‘Iron Cross’. He believed that the Jews and the
communists were responsible for the defeat of Germany. He therefore undertook a programme to
avenge the defeat. He began to work as a spy in Munich. He also started a new party with the
cooperation of his friends. National Socialist German Labour Party was launched.
Nazi Party
To carryout his programmes, Hitler started the National Socialist Party or Nazi Party.
‘Swastika’ was made the symbol of Nazi Party. By the year 1932, the membership of the Nazi
Party increased to 70 lakhs. To attract the young people to his party, Hitler started ‘Hitler Young
Society.’ Also he formed two military bodies. The members were wearing brown shirts with a red
armband carrying a black Swastika. Another division was called as the ‘Black Shirts’.
They were the body guards of the Nazi party leaders.
HITLER
In 1932, Hitler contested for the post of President. But he was defeated with a few votes against
Hindenburg. But in the general election conducted in the same year, his party became the largest
party in the parliament. According to the provisions of the constitution as a leader of the majority
party in the Reichstag, Hitler was made the Chancellor. Thus he formed the Nazi Government.
He established the dictatorship of the Nazi Party. Communist party was banned and its leaders
were arrested. The civil rights of the people were suspended. The Weimar Republic came to an
end. Hitler declared the establishment of the Third Reich. The flag of the Nazi Party became the
National flag. The Parliament was dissolved. The powers of the parliament were transferred to
Hitler.

Anti- Jew Policy

In Germany, the Jews enjoyed a privileged position due to their wealth and education. He
believed that they were anti- nationals. Hitler now made several efforts to crush the Jews. Anti-
Jew Laws were passed. They were denied German citizenship. He adopted very harsh and
repressive measures for the economic and cultural boycott of the Jews.
Military Reforms

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Hitler reorganised his military on the basis of German nationality. Germans alone were admitted
into the military service. He established a totalitarian type of government so that he could
follow an aggressive foreign policy.
Foreign Policy of Hitler
Hitler did not approve the Treaty of Versailles. It was a dictated peace. Hence it was a
humiliating one. The German people accepted the policy of Hitler and accepted him as their
leader. The important aspects of his foreign policy are given below.
German came out of the League of Nations
Following the League of Nations Disarmament Conference on February 3, 1932 Hitler announced
the withdrawal from the League.He started the process of rearming Germany.
Rearmament
As mentioned above, after the Geneva Disarmament Conference, Hitler withdrew from the
League of Nations. Now he was free to rearm Germany. On March 16, 1935, Hitler announced
compulsory military training for all German people. He also aimed to have the air force equal to
that of England and France. He announced that the reason for the increase in the strength of the
army was selfdefence. But France and England had natural suspicion over these actions of Hitler.
Therefore they convened a meeting at Stressa in Switzerland and condemned the behaviour of
Hitler. But their condemnation did not affect Hitler from rearmament.
Militarization of Rhineland
Rhineland was to be demilitarised, according to the Treaty of Versailles. On March 7, 1936,
Hitler sent his army into the heart of Rhineland and started the construction of fortifications.
France opposed this move of Germany. But England was a silent spectator to this action of Hitler.
Thus a golden opportunity to stop the aggressive behaviour of Hitler was lost by both England
and France.
The Spanish Civil War
A Republic had been proclaimed in Spain in 1931. In 1936 the conservatives under General
Franco started a Civil War against the Republic. Now Germany and Italy supported Franco
whereas Russia supported the Republicans. The Republicans were defeated and the dictatorship
of Franco was established. The net result of the Spanish Civil War was that it helped Italy and
Germany to come closer and later their friendship was converted into a treaty.
Rome- Berlin -Tokyo Axis
In October 1936, On the basis of an agreement Germany approved Italian control over Abyssinia
and Italy granted permission to Hitler to annex Austria with Germany. Hitler was antagonistic
towards Russian Communism. Therefore Hitler in November 1936, signed an Anti- Commintern
Pact with Japan, another enemy of Russia. In November 1937, Italy was admitted into the
alliance. This Anti Commintern pact was otherwise called as Rome –Berlin- Tokyo Axis. This
Axis was formed against England, France and Russia. This was the beginning of Second World
War. Nazism grew in Germany under Hitler. It stood for aggressive nationalism, authoritarianism
and the leadership principle. On becoming Germany’s Chancellor in 1933, Hitler undertook a
rearmament programme. His aggressive foreign policy led to the Second World War. Similarly,
Mussolini organized the Fascist movement in Italy. He believed in dictatorship, aggressive
foreign policy and colonial policy. Thus, he emerged as the Il Duce or supreme commander. The
emergence of dictatorship in Europe paved the way for Second World War.

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 The League of Nations
The League of Nations formally came into being on 10th January 1920 (it first met in
August 1920). Its headquarters were situated at Geneva in Switzerland.
The Objectives of the League
The League had two main aims:
1. To maintain peace through Collective Security. In other words, if one state
attacked another, the member states of the League would act together,
collectively, to restrain the aggressor (either by economic sanctions, or by joint
military action).
2. To encourage international co-operation in order to solve economic and social
problems.
The Organisation of the League
In the beginning there were 42 member states. By 1926 (when Germany joined),
membership had risen to 55 member states.

The major organs of the League were:

The General Assembly
The General Assembly contained representatives (or delegates) of all the member states.
Each country had one vote. The Assembly met annually; its function being to decide
general policy. The Assembly also handled the finances of the League. Any decisions
taken by the League had to have the unanimous support of all the member states.
The Council
The Council was a much smaller body than the Assembly. It was required to meet at least
three times a year. The Council contained four permanent members and four elected
members. The four permanent members were:
1. Britain
2. France
3. Italy
4. Japan
The United States would have been a permanent member if she had joined.
The Council’s function was to deal with specific political disputes as they arose. In other
words, it was the Council’s task to keep the peace between disputing nations. The
Council required unanimous support on all decisions (which was often difficult to get).
The Permanent Court of International Justice
This was the League’s Court. It was based at the Hague, in Holland, and consisted of 15
judges of different nationalities. The Court of International Justice dealt with legal
disputes between nations rather than political ones.
The Secretariat
This was the bureaucratic organ of the League. It handled all the paperwork, prepared
agendas and reports, and was responsible for publicity. The first chairman of this body of
civil servants was Sir Eric Drummond of Britain.
Various Commissions & Committees
1. The Mandates Commission kept watch on the German and Turkish colonies which had
been put under the temporary rule of Britain and France (as mandates).
2. The Disarmament Commission worked to persuade the member nations to reduce the
size of their armed forces and their stocks of weapons. Aggression was considered to be
less likely to occur if member states did not have to means to make war.

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The Weaknesses of the League
3.3.1 The Absence of the USA
Although the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, was one of the major
advocates of a world peacekeeping organisation, the United States never became a
member of the League. In March 1920, the US Senate rejected both the League and the
Versailles settlement (by 49 votes to 35). They wished to follow an isolationist policy.
The great political, financial, and military backing which America could have provided
was lost to the League.
3.3.2 The Absence of Germany & Russia
In the beginning neither Germany nor Russia were asked to join the League. Germany
and her allies (Austria, Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria) were excluded from the League
as defeated powers. Germany eventually joined the League in 1926, but the damage had
already been done. Germany’s early exclusion was e to cause resentment among German
nationalists. In 1933, Hitler pulled Germany out of the League. Russia was also excluded
from the League by the victorious Allies. Although Russia had been on the Allied side,
she had withdrawn from the war following the Bolshevik (communist) revolution of
1917. A communist Russia was not considered trustworthy to be a member of the League
by the capitalist west until 1934 (when Russia joined). Clearly, the League of Nations
could never hope to build a lasting peace with such great powers as Russia and Germany
‘out in the cold’.
3.3.3 Domination of the League by Britain & France
With the United States, Russia, and Germany not being members of the League, Britain
and France were the only ‘Great’ powers who were. This made the League appear to be
an instrument of British and French foreign policy (especially designed for their benefit).
As the only two great powers in the League, Britain and France would have to take the
lead, and perhaps military action, it it was to be successful. In reality, neither were
prepared to do so (because they were frightened of provoking a major war). Also, the
League was too closely associated with the Treaty of Versailles (the harshness of which
was largely the fault of France). The Treaty became increasingly criticised as being
unfair, and began to be challenged more and more as time progressed. The League was
forced to attempt to enforce the provisions of the Treaty, Even though many nations felt
the League was in the wrong.
3.3.4 The League had No Army of its Own
This was a serious weakness. It meant that the League ‘lacked teeth’. It could raise a
force from troops contributed by member states, but in practice this would be slow and
inefficient. In 1923, as resolution was passed giving each member state the right to decide
for itself whether to contribute troops in a crisis. This made a nonsense of the whole idea
of Collective Security which depended on all members acting together. In 1924, Ramsay
MacDonald, the Labour Prime Minister of Britain, and a great supporter of the League of
Nations, put forward another resolution known as the Geneva Protocol. The Protocol
attempted to pledge members to come to the military support of any nation who was the
victim of unprovoked aggression by another Nation. However, the Conservative
government which came to power in 1924 (and served until 1929) informed the League
that it would have nothing to do with the Geneva Protocol (as did many other member
states). The idea of collective security was dead.
3.3.5 The Need for Unanimous Decisions

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The need for unanimous decisions in both the General Assembly and the Council meant
that it was difficult to take decisive action.

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