CHEM MODULE 1:

PROPERTIES & STRUCTURE OF MATTER

CLASSIFYING MATTER:

Pure Substances: distinct measurable properties, chemically bonded, cannot be separated by physical
means eg. table salt, gold

Mixtures: impure, variable proportion, physically combined eg. dirt water

→ homogenous: uniform composition
→ heterogenous: non uniform composition that varies within the mixture

SEPARATING MIXTURES + GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS:

Physical properties: can be observed or measured without changing composition of matter
● Melting/ boiling point
● Density colour
● Magnetism
● Thermal/electrical conductivity
● Lustre
● Solubility
● Hardness (to deform)
● Tensile strength (stretch withstood without bending/breaking)
● Brittle (shatters when hammered)
● Malleability (beaten into sheets)
● Ductile (drawn into wires)

Separating Mixtures: based on differences in physical properties

Sieving: difference in particle size
Magnetic separation: magnetism using magnet
NOTE: zinc + copper are NOT magnetic
Filtration: Filtrate passed through, Residue left behind using different solubility & difference in particle
size
Sedimentation: solid particles settle from a suspension to form a sediment, using different densities
Decantation: pouring liquid off a solid, quick but ineffective using different densities
Centrifugation: extreme sedimentation using centrifuge, using different densities
Evaporation: separated by different boiling points
Crystallisation: forming crystals from dissolved solid, using different solubilities
Distillation: liquid is evaporated then cooled to condense back to liquid (distillate), using difference in
boiling points
→ Fractional distillation: using smaller difference between different boiling points
Separating Funnel: immiscible liquids (don’t mix), using funnel to run denser liquid through tap, using
different densities and immiscible liquids

1
Gravimetric Analysis: determining composition (mass) of substances in mixture → % composition

CLASSIFYING ELEMENTS BASED ON PROPERTIES:

Periods: Rows (across)

Groups: Columns (down)

Metal → Metalloids → Non-Metal

Physical properties of metals:

● High melting point
● High density
● High tensile strength
● Malleable & ductile
● Conductor of heat & electricity

Physical properties of nonmetals

● Variable state/form
● Dull
● Poor conductor of heat & electricity
● Brittle

STABLE + UNSTABLE ISOTOPES:

Isotopes: Difference in neutrons → different mass
Causes of instability:
● Too heavy > 82,
● Inappropriate balance of neutrons to proton
→ 1:1 (1-20)
→ 3:2 (21-82)
NOTE: protons & neutrons also called nucleons

Nuclear Radiation: Energy and/or particles released when nucleus decays

Types of Radioactive Decay:

● Alpha Decay: Helium nucleus (2 protons & 2 neutrons) emitted
● Beta Minus (e-) decay: Neutron > Protons, neutron decays into proton, electron emitted
2
 ● Gamma Decay: Nucleus changes from higher → lower energy state, emitting EMR (will often
occur during alpha & beta decay due to energetic atomic nucleus)
NOTE: Gamma Decay does not result in transmutation (different element)
NOTE: Beta radiation often results in radioisotopes with higher atomic number

Alpha Particle (2+) = Helium Nucleus (↑ ionising ↓penetrating)

Beta Particle (1-)(radioactive) = Electron
Gamma ray= EMR/ released as part of other type of decay (↓ ionising (↑ penetrating)

Balancing Nuclear Decay Equations: Atomic & Mass numbers must add up to same on both sides of
the equation

Ionising Power: ability of radiation to damage molecules

Half life: time required for half of a radioactive sample to decay

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION + SPDF

Bohr Atom: Nth energy level can fill up 2n^2 electrons.
● The energy levels become greater as they get further from the nucleus.
● In atoms, the electrons tend to be in the lowest energy levels possible.

Electronic Configuration: Electron will stop before 3rd shell fills up at 8, fill 2 electrons in the 4th shell
before continuing to fill up the rest of shell 3

Bohr Atom & Quantum Theory:

● Electrons can only move from one energy level to another by emitting or absorbing energy
● Gains energy → higher level (excited state → unstable, will eventually move back down to stable
state → when jumping down, will release energy in form of EMR
● QUANTUM of ENERGY: Energy absorbed or emitted
3
Electrons absorb & release EMR:
● → infrared radiation (heat), transfer of energy in collision

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy:

● Energy = energy different between 2 energy levels
● Corresponds to specific energy, producing particular coloured light

Emission Spectrum: pattern of lines at different wavelengths, unique to each element

Flame Test:
● Elements produce certain colour when heated in flame, determining metal identity
● Energy absorbed / emitted by electron would correspond to a particular wavelength of EMR
(measurable)
● Greater energy released, shorter wavelength of radiation emitted

Schrodinger Model:
● Describing the likelihood of finding electron in certain position
● Nucleus surrounded by electron cloud

Orbitals:
Region in space where one is likely to find an electron

ORDER OF FILLING ORBITALS:

4
NOTE: Overlap of sub orbitals, energy levels get closer as you get further away from the nucleus.
Therefore, 4s orbital filled before 3d orbital

PERIODICITY:
● Atomic radius increase down a group (electron shell increases)
● Atomic radius decreases across a period from left to right (greater electrostatic force, pulling
electrons stronger to nucleus)

Ionisation Energy:
● Minimum energy to remove an electron from the atom/molecule in the gaseous state
● Increases as you go across period
● Decreases as you go down group
First ionisation energy is energy required to remove most loosely held electron

Electronegativity:
● Ability of atom to attracts toward itself
● Increases across period from left to right
● Tends to decrease down a group or remain the same,
● Valence electrons further from positive nucleus, decreases force of attraction → less attracting
power for extra electrons

Reactivity: (metals react by losing, non metals react by attracting)

● Group I & II metals
→ increases down a group
→ decreases across a period
● Group VI & VII non-metals
→ decreases down a group
→ increases across a period
5
All elements that react with water are metals (hydrogen gas + metal hydroxide)

The larger the atomic radius the more reactive the metal (weaker electrostatic attraction between
nucleus and outermost electrons).

Reactivity increases as electrostatic attraction decreases

NOTE: Transition metals are less reactive than Group 1 & 2

IONIC COMPOUNDS:
Ionic Bonds: Electrostatic attraction between cation and anion is called an ionic bond
Ions and the periodic table: Valence electrons = group number
Naming ionic compounds: (1)Cation, (2)Anion /[valency]

NOTE: Fe: 2
Copper: 2
Lewis Electron Dot Diagram:
Lone pair: electrons in atom’s valence shell (not used in bonding)
Bonding pair: electron pair involved in bonding
Ionic Lattice Structure:
● 3D crystal lattice, alternating cations & anions, held together by electrostatic attraction
● High melting & boiling point as large amounts of energy required to break the strong attraction
between the cations and anions that hold ionic lattice together
● Hard & Brittle (as result of strong electrostatic attraction), ions of similar charge come into close
contact → repulsive forces when breaking crystal
Strength of Ionic bond:
● Ionic Charge (↑ charge = ↑ attraction)
● Smaller size of ion (pack closer so ionic charge stronger)

Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of number of ions of each element in the compound.
Molecular formula: number and type of atoms present in a single molecule of substance

6
 COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Type of Particle: Molecules
● Noble gases exist as separate atoms (monatomic)
● Covalent molecules exist as two or more atoms joined by covalent bonds.
● Molecules are particles which can move independently of each other in liquids and gases.

Covalent Bonds: (non-metal – non metal)

● Formed when atoms share electrons so that each atom has a full valence shell
Bonding Pairs: Electrons shared by atoms
Lone Pairs: Non-bonding electrons
Naming Covalent Bonds: (prefix + -ide)
Valency in molecular compounds:
Covalent structures:

COVALENT NETWORK COMPOUNDS

Covalent Network: network of atoms held together by strong covalent bonds extending throughout a 3D
crystal lattice

Lattice: Infinitely orderly array of particles

● Cannot conduct electricity
● Strong intramolecular covalent bonds
● Weak intermolecular forces

Physical properties:
● Hard & Brittle
● Extremely high melting & boiling point
● Non conductors when solid

Eg: Silicon Dioxide (SiO2),

NOTE: Graphite can conduct electricity due to ‘spare’ electrons that become delocalised over the whole
sheet of atoms in one layer

7
 METALLIC STRUCTURE
NOTE: All metals have 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons. Weakly held to atom
Metals ions: cations
Lattice crystal structure: valence electrons are delocalised (free to move amongst the ions)
Metallic bond: electrostatic attraction between negatively charged electron and positively charged
metal ion
Electrostatic forces are the forces between particles that are caused by their electric charges
Structure: 3-dimensional crystal lattice
Property:
● High melting point (large energy to overcome strong attraction between cations and delocalised
electrons that hold metallic lattice together
● Difference in melting point (G1 lower than G2) due to weaker metallic bonding
● Thermal conductivity: Heat increases the kinetic energy of the electrons enabling them to move
quickly transferring energy faster.
● Lustre: due to delocalised electrons, free electrons absorb photons so metals are opaque
looking
Shearing forces: Shearing forces act in one direction at the top, and the opposite direction at the
bottom,
Strength of metallic bond dependant on:
● Greater valence electrons, stronger metallic bond
● Smaller size of atom, stronger metallic bonding

ELECTRONEGATIVITY, BOND POLARITY & MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

BOND
Electronegativity: electron-attracting ability of atom (pulling power)
(increases across period, decreases across group)
● Non metal high
● Metal - low

Polar Bonds: Covalent bonds in which there is an uneven charge distribution between the two atoms
sharing the electrons:
● 1 atom small positive charge (δ+)
● Other atom small negative charge (δ−)

Electric dipole moment: positive charge & equal negative charge separated by fixed distance

Pauling Scale:
8
Electronegativity:
● <0.4 → nonpolar covalent
● 0.4 - 1.6 → polar covalent
● >2.0 → ionic

MOLECULE
Shape dependant on:
● Bond length
● Bond Angle
● Lone pairs

LINEAR: (CO2)
● Bond angle 180°
● No lone pairs

BENT: (H2O)
● 2 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs
● Always polar
● Lone pairs push atoms downwards
● Bond angle (104.3°

TRIGONAL PLANAR (BF3)

● Have no lone-pairs
● Always non-polar
● Bond angle (120°)

TETRAHEDRAL (CH4)
● 4 bonding pairs
● Bond angle 109.5°

TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL (NH3)

● 3 bonding pairs, 1 lone pair
● Lone electrons push other atoms down
● Bond angle 107°

Determinants of Molecular Polarity:

● Symmetry
● Bond Polarity
Symmetry:
● Shape is symmetrical
● Atom arrangements are symmetrical
● Bond dipole is represented by vectors →
○ arrowheads = negative dipole end

NON POLAR:
● Beryllium Fluoride (BeF2)
○ Linear
○ Vector Sum = 0
● Boron Trifluoride (BF3)
○ Trigonal Planar
○ Vector Sum = 0
● Carbon Tetrafluoride (CF4)
○ Tetrahedron
9
 ○ Vector Sum = 0

POLAR:
→ Asymmetrical
→ Lone pairs
● Water (H2O)
○ Bent
○ Vector Sum = Net molecular dipole
● Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
○ Bent
○ Vector Sum = Net molecular dipole
● Ammonia (NH3)
○ Trigonal Pyramidal
○ Vector Sum = Non-zero
● Ammonia (CH3Cl)
○ Tetrahedral
○ Asymmetrical distribution of charge

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intramolecular bonds: forces within molecules
● Ionic (cation - anion)
● Covalent (shared electrons)
● Metallic (cations + delocalised electrons)
Intermolecular forces: forces between molecules, weaker, influence physical properties
● Dispersion forces
○ present in all molecules, due to fluctuation of electron cloud
○ temporary dipole
○ induced dipole attract one another
○ dependant on electron number, size + mass, surface area
● Dipole-dipole
○ exist in all polar molecules
○ when component atoms have different electronegativities
○ (+) end of polar molecule and (-) end of polar molecule
● Hydrogen bonding
○ Strong dipole-dipole force
○ Hydrogen & F, O, N

NOTE: similar weight → similar electrons → electrons give rise to dispersion forces
Only these 3 because most electronegative and difference between is so strong that it forms strong
hydrogen bonding

EG. Water
NOTE: 1 water molecule can form 4 hydrogen bonds

EG: Ammonia
● N has 1 lone-pair
NOTE: 1 ammonia molecule can only form 2 hydrogen bonds

10
EG. Hydrogen Fluoride
NOTE: can only form 2 hydrogen bonds

Hydride: compound that contains a hydrogen

● Boiling point increases as you go down group as increased electrons mean stronger dispersion
forces → higher boiling point

NOTE:
Non-polar: Only dispersion forces
Polar: Dipole dipole + hydrogen forces + dispersion

Common Mistakes:

● Improper reading of questions: (LEAST LIKELY, MOST → LEAST ETC.)

● Think DEEPLY about the question

11