The Node Voltage Method (NVM)

Gary A. Ybarra
The node voltage method as presented here departs from the standard approach presented in current introductory circuits textbooks. The procedure presented is completely general, uses the correct denition of a node and requires the minimum amount of work to solve a given problem for an unknown voltage. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1. Suppose we are given the element values v 1 , i1 , R1 , and R2 , and our objective is to nd the unknown voltage v x across the current source.

v 1

i1

vx

R1

Figure 1: Node voltage method example 1 The rst thing to observe is that the current source i 1 and the resistor R1 are in parallel. Therefore the unknown voltage vx also appears across R1 . If we knew the current through R1 , we could use Ohms Law to nd vx . However, we do not know the current through R 1 . A common mistake is to think that the current through R1 is i1 . Only part of i1 ows through R1 . If we knew the voltage across R2 , we could use KVL around the outside loop to nd v x . We do not know the voltage across R2 . We are therefore going to apply a new method of solving circuits called the node voltage method. A node is a connection of conductors, not a point. To nd the full extent of a node, put your pencil down on a wire and follow it as far as you can go in all directions until you reach an element. When you have exhausted all paths, what you have traced is a node. The circuit in Figure 1 has three nodes which are enclosed by dotted lines in Figure 2.

v 1

i1

vx

R1

Figure 2: Node voltage method example 1 The node voltage method (NVM) procedure is the same for all circuits. The Node Voltage Method (NVM) Procedure 1. Label a node with a ground symbol. This is the reference node and by denition has a potential of 0 V. 2. Starting from ground, label the other node voltages by progressing through successive voltages. Do NOT introduce unnecessary unknowns! Place a negative polarity by the ground symbol 1

R2

R2

to denote the reference node. Place a positive polarity at each of the other nodes to indicate that the node voltage is with respect to ground. 3. Apply KCL to the node(s) where the unknown voltage(s) appear(s). Following the NVM procedure, one of the nodes must be chosen as ground. By convention, most people select the bottom node as ground (but this is completely arbitrary, and any node can be selected as ground). With the bottom node selected as ground (see Figure 3), the top left node has a potential of vx and the top right node has a potential of v x v1 . The key to labeling node voltages is to remember to start from ground and progress through voltages recognizing whether you are increasing potential (voltage rise, from - to +) or decreasing potential (voltage drop, from + to -). KCL is generally applied where the unknown voltage appears. In the circuit of Figure 3 you could apply KCL at either of the top nodes. It is a good idea to label the nodes where you apply KCL. Your work will then be easier to follow by anyone reviewing your work including yourself. If we label the node at the top left n 1 , KCL at n1 produces vx 0 vx v 1 0 + =0 R1 R2 This equation has only a single unknown v x and can be solved very easily algebraically. KCL n1 i1 + (1)

+ vx R1

i1

(0 V)
Figure 3: Node voltage method example 1 The KEY to writing the correct KCL equations rests in expressing currents through resistors as the node voltage drop across the resistor divided by the resistance. For example, the resistance R1 shown in Figure 4 has node voltage vA on its left and node voltage vB on its right. The current to the right (by Ohms Law) is the voltage drop to the right divided by the resistance and the current to the left (by Ohms Law) is the voltage drop to the left divided by the resistance. Note that the current to the right is the negative of the current to the left, which is exactly how it must be.

vA vA - vB R1

R1

Figure 4: Resistor with node voltages v A and vB and the current through it expressed as the dierence between the two node voltages divided by the resistance There are only two ways to express currents leaving a node: either by Ohms Law applied to a resistor or a current source value.

n1

vx

v 1

vx- v 1 + R2

vB vB - vA R1

v 1

v 2

i1

vx

R1

R2

v 3

Figure 5: Node voltage method example 2

+ vx R1

i1

R2 + -v 3

(0 V)

v 3

Figure 6: Node voltage method example 2 Consider the circuit in Figure 5. Suppose we are given the element values and wish to nd the unknown voltage vx across the current source i1 . We will use the NVM to nd vx . The rst step is to label a node with the ground symbol. This circuit has ve nodes. Be sure that you can identify all ve nodes. Figure 6 shows the circuit with the nodes identied, the node voltages labeled including ground, and the node identied that will be used to apply KCL. Note that there is only one unknown voltage in this circuit. If you know vx , you know every voltage. Applying KCL at node n 1 yields KCL n1 i1 + vx 0 vx v1 0 vx v1 + v2 (v3 ) + + =0 R1 R2 R3 (2)

The inclusion of the 0s in the KCL equation emphasizes the importance of expressing the voltage drop across a resistor as the dierence between two node voltages. In the following example, we will nd it necessary to introduce a new unknown voltage because it will be impossible to label all of the node voltages in terms of the symbols given.

v 1

R3

i1

vx

i2 R1 R2

Figure 7: Node voltage method example 3 Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7. Given all of the element values, the problem is to nd the unknown voltage vx . Using the NVM, we label a node ground (for example the bottom node) and attempt to label each of the other node voltages. We are able to label the node voltages at the top left 3

n1

vx

vx - v 1 +

R3

vx - v + v 1 2 +

R3

node (vx ) and the top-center node (vx v1 ) but are unable to label the voltage at the top right node without introducing another unknown voltage (say v y ). We label the top right node voltage as v y . Since there are now two unknown voltages (v x and vy ), we will have to apply KCL twice. The circuit with ground and node voltages labeled is shown in Figure 8. The circuit has four nodes (including ground) which are outlined by dashed boxes.

v 1

vx - v 1 +

R3 n2 vy +

vx n1

+ vx i2 R1 R2

i1

Figure 8: Node voltage method example 3 Applying KCL at nodes n1 and n2 yields KCL n1 KCL n2 i1 + vx v 1 v y vx 0 + i2 + =0 R1 R3 vy 0 vy (vx v1 ) + =0 R2 R3 (3) (4)

i2 +

These two equations can now be solved simultaneously for the unknown voltage v x .

+ -

(0 V)