Solar Energy

Dr. Chayan Kumer Saha

Professor
Department of Farm Power and Machinery
Bangladesh Agricultural University
Mymensingh, Bangladesh
 Outline of the Lecture

 Introduction
 Basic properties of solar energy
 solar thermal system – solar collectors, solar collector characteristics
and classification, solar energy storage, application of solar thermal
energy
 Solar photovoltaic system – photovoltaic cell fundamentals,
characteristics and classification, solar photovoltaic power plant,
application of photovoltaic system
 Analysis of economic and environmental aspects.
 Solar Energy

 Solar energy is the radiant light and

heat from the sun that has been
harnessed by humans since ancient
times using a range of ever-evolving
technologies.
 Solar radiation along with secondary
solar resources account for most of the
available renewable energy on earth.
 All other renewable energies other
than geothermal derive their energy
from energy received from the sun.

we are highly dependent on the sun, that

contributes 5.4 million EJ (exa-jules = 1018
jules) to the total energy available on Earth
(Figure 1)
Figure 1: Schematic representation of the Sun’s influence on different energy sources
 Solar Energy

 Sun is heaviest body of the solar system around which all the planets revolve.
o The mass of the sun = 1.98*1030 kg
o Diameter =1.392*109, It is about 109 times the diameter of the earth.

 The temperature and pressure in the interior of the sun are extremely high, and the
temperature on the surface is 5800k.
 The light emitted from the sun reaches the earth in 8.3 minutes, and it is the main
source of heat and light energy for all the members of solar system including the
earth.
 Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap and abundantly available renewable
energy. It is received on earth in cyclic, intermittent and dilute form with very low
power density 0 to 1 kW/m2. Solar energy received on the ground level is affected by
atmosphere clarity, degree of latitude, etc.
Solar Potential
 All Things from Solar

 Interesting note: nearly all of our energy sources originated from solar energy:
 Bio - mass/bio- fuels: Plants need the sun to grow.
 Coal, oil, natural gas: Solar energy used by plants which became coal after
billions of years and lots and lots of pressure
 Wind: Uneven heating of the air by the sun causes some air to heat and rise. Cool
air then comes in and replaces the warmer air.
 Ocean: Dependent partly on winds, which in turn depend on the sun.
 Hydro - Electric: The sun heats up water evaporating it. When it rains some of that
water ends up behind damns.

 Notable exceptions:
 Nuclear energy: Uranium or other heavy metal (fission)
 Geothermal: Energy from the core of the Earth
 Solar Energy

Important features of Solar Energy

 SUN the source of ‘Solar energy’ is a huge, glowing sphere of hot gas with 1.4 million
kilometer diameter. Most of this gas is hydrogen (about 70%) and helium (about 28%).
 Due to Nuclear fusion reaction of Hydrogen with Helium internal temperatures reach over 20
million Kelvin.
 The resulting loss of mass due to fusion is converted into about 3.8 × 1020 MW of
electromagnetic energy (power) that radiates outward from the surface into space.
 The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a blackbody @ 5800 K.
 The amount of energy reaching the surface of the Earth every hour is greater than the
amount of energy used by the Earth's population over an entire year.
 Solar Energy

Terms used in Solar Energy: Irradiance, Irradiation & Insolation :

Irradiance: is the rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area ( W/m2)
and is represented by the symbol G.
Irradiation: is the incident energy per unit area (J/m2) on a surface -determined by integration
of irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a day.
Insolation: is a term used to indicate ‘Solar Energy Irradiation’. (An abbreviation for ‘Incident
Solar Radiation’)

 While solar irradiance is most commonly measured, a more common form of radiation data, solar
Insolation is the total amount of solar energy received at a particular location during a specified
time period, often in units of kWh/(m2-day).
 While the units of solar Insolation and solar irradiance are both a power density (for solar
Insolation the "hours" in the numerator are a time measurement as is the "day" in the
denominator), solar Insolation is quite different than the solar irradiance as the solar Insolation is
the instantaneous solar irradiance averaged over a given time period.
 Solar Insolation data is commonly used for simple PV system design while solar radiance is used
in more complicated PV system performance evaluation which calculates the system
performance at each point in the day.
 Extra Terrestrial & Terrestrial Solar Radiation:
While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere which is known as
Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation is relatively constant, the radiation at the Earth's
surface which is known as Terrestrial Solar Radiation varies widely due to:

 Atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering.

 Local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution.
 Latitude of the location and
 Season of the year and the time of day.
 Extra Terrestrial & Terrestrial Solar Radiation:

The above effects have several impacts on the solar radiation received at the
Earth's surface. These changes include:
 Variations in the overall power received, the spectral content of the energy and the
angle from which light is incident on a surface.
 In addition, a key change is that the variability of the solar radiation at a particular
location increases dramatically. The variability is due to both local effects such as
clouds and seasonal variations, as well as other effects such as the length of the day
at particular latitude.
 Desert regions tend to have lower variations due to local atmospheric phenomena
such as clouds. Equatorial regions have low variability between seasons.
 As solar radiation makes its way toward the earth’s surface, some of it is absorbed
by various constituents in the atmosphere, giving the terrestrial spectrum an
irregular, bumpy shape.
 The terrestrial spectrum also depends on how much atmosphere the radiation has to
pass through to reach the surface. This is explained by a term called Air Mass
Ratio.
 Characteristics of Solar Radiation & Radiation Spectrum

The characteristics of Solar Radiation are best explained with the help of the Solar
spectrum plots which give data on intensity as spectral content.
These characteristics are normally shown at Extra Terrestrial (above the atmosphere)
level and at Terrestrial level (sea level) in comparison with a standard, a Black body
at 5800 k.

The solar spectrum typically extends from

the IR to the UV region, wave - length
range from 3 μm to 0.2 μm. But the
intensity is not uniform.
A typical solar spectrum, as a plot of
spectral irradiance vs. wavelength, is
shown in the figure below.
The area under the curve gives the total
areal intensity and this is approximately
1.35 kW/m2
 Characteristics of Solar Radiation & Radiation Spectrum

Solar constant: The Sun-Earth distance varies about the mean distance by around 1.7
percent. At the mean distance of 149.5 million km which is known as one
Astronomical Unit (AU), the solar flux outside the earth’s atmosphere is 1.353 kW/m2
, which is a quantity known as the Solar Constant.
The solar spectrum can be approximated by a black body radiation curve at
temperature of approximately 58000C. There is also a difference in the spectra
measured at the top of the atmosphere and at the surface, due to atmospheric
scattering and absorption. It can also be seen that as solar radiation makes its way
towards the earth’s surface, some of it is absorbed by various constituents in the
atmosphere, giving the terrestrial spectrum an irregular, bumpy shape.

Also shown are the areas under the actual

solar spectrum that corresponds to
wavelengths within the ultraviolet UV (7%),
visible (47%), and infrared IR (46%) portions
of the spectrum. The visible spectrum, which
lies between the UV and IR, ranges from 0.38
μm (violet) to 0.78 μm (red).
Characteristics of Solar Radiation & Radiation Spectrum
 Solar Energy

The advantages of solar energy:

i. Environmentally clean source of energy and
ii. Freely available in adequate quantities.
iii. It is renewable source of energy
iv. Available widely in any part of world

The main problems associated with solar energy are:

i. Dilute source of energy and
ii. Availability varies widely with me.
 Solar Energy

Applications of solar energy:

i. Heating and Cooling of buildings
ii. Solar water and air heating
iii. Salt production by evaporation of sea water
iv. Solar distillation
v. Solar drying of agricultural products
vi. Solar cookers
vii. Solar water pumping
viii. Solar refrigeration
ix. Electricity generation through photo voltaic cells
x. Solar furnaces
xi. Industrial process heat
xii. Solar thermal power generation
 Solar Energy

Applications of solar energy:

i. Heating and Cooling of buildings
ii. Solar water and air heating
iii. Salt production by evaporation of sea water
iv. Solar distillation
v. Solar drying of agricultural products
vi. Solar cookers
vii. Solar water pumping
viii. Solar refrigeration
ix. Electricity generation through photo voltaic cells
x. Solar furnaces
xi. Industrial process heat
xii. Solar thermal power generation
Solar Energy
 Solar Thermal Energy

Figure. Solar thermal energy classified by working temperature. Source: Jesus Mirapeix.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsAdmpq8zTU
 Solar Thermal Systems

 Solar thermal systems harness the heat from sunlight to generate thermal energy,
which can be used for various applications.
 Unlike PV systems that convert sunlight directly into electricity, solar thermal
systems focus on capturing and utilizing the sun’s heat for heating water, air, or other
fluids.
 This renewable and sustainable form of energy offers significant potential for
reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
 Solar thermal systems find application in a wide range of sectors, including
residential, commercial, and industrial settings. Common applications include water
heating, space heating, air conditioning, and industrial processes such as drying and
desalination.
 By utilizing solar energy, these systems provide a clean and cost effective alternative
to conventional heating methods, contributing to energy efficiency and
environmental sustainability.
 Solar Thermal Systems

Solar Thermal Energy: Low Temperature

Although we are probably more used to wind or solar PV energy, solar thermal energy,
particularly low temperature installations (also known as Solar Water Heating (SWH)
Systems ), is widely employed in many countries.

China is, for example, the world leader in installations, and it is very common in other
countries like Greece, Turkey, Australia, Japan or Austria. Israel is another good
example, with 85% of its homes using these systems.

This is a mature and low-cost (and low-complexity) technology. The latter is especially
true in locations with suitable weather conditions, where less sophisticated collectors
will be chosen.

Low-temperature solar thermal collectors can be divided into flat plate and evacuated
tube types. The former work at temperatures up to 80 − 90◦C with a limited efficiency,
being the typical choice for locations with abundant solar radiation.
 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar Thermal Energy: Low Temperature

Flat plate collectors are formed by a layer of
absorber material (dark) covered by a protective
glass.
The absorber layer is in contact with tubes that
carry a fluid (not necessarily water, most likely
antifreeze solutions, thus avoiding problems at low
temperatures) that will be heated and transported
out of the collector.
These designs usually also consider isolating
materials to reduce losses. These systems tend to
be passive, with the water tank located above the
collector. Support tanks providing hot water when
needed can be also included.
Active systems include a water pump and the Figure 7. Flat plate collector (top). Illustration of a SWH
water tank can be located elsewhere. system based on a flat plate collector(bottom).
Sourc e (top): http://bit.ly/2zbKRRG. Source (bottom): Chixoy
(License CC-BY-SA 3.0).
 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar Thermal Energy: Low Temperature

If a more efficient approach is required,
evacuated tube collectors can be selected
(Figure 8). In this case vacuum tubes are
employed to reduce thermal losses and improve
efficiency. Direct flow vacuum tubes have a
working principle similar to flat plate collectors
whereas heat-pipe tubes involve the use of liquids
that turn into gas when heated, moving up to the
upper part of the tube and exchanging the heat
with water. After this exchange, the gas is cooled
and returns to its liquid phase, going down the
tube and fulfilling the cycle.
This way, the problem of tube overheating is Figure 8. Working principle of evacuated tube collectors
(top). Example of solar thermal system based on evacuated
avoided.
tube (bottom). Source (top): http://bit.ly/2kUyt3x (Public
Domain).
Sourc e (bottom): Greensolarvacuum (License: CC-BY-SA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BGsmlIoiJN8 3.0) http://bit.ly/2kW0Gqv.
 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar Thermal Energy: Medium Temperature

When working temperatures are above 100◦C , solar thermal energy is normally used for the
production of electricity. Medium temperature installations are typically formed by parabolic-
trough mirrors designed to focused all the incoming radiation on a tube located above them
(Figure 9). This tube is used to guide a fluid (HTF: Heat Thermal Fluid) (normally an oil, not
water) that transports that heat that will eventually be used to generate electricity by means of
a turbine.

Figure 9. Working principle of a parabolic-

trough (left). Parabolic-trough at the Harper
Lake plant (California, USA) (right).
Source (left): http://bit.ly/2BxAAFE, License:
CC BY-SA 4.0.
Source (right): http://bit.ly/2Bx7Gpb (License
CC-BY-SA 3.0).
 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar Thermal Energy: High Temperature/CSP

High temperature solar thermal energy, also known as Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
is typically based on the power-tower scheme depicted in Figure 10.
A set of heliostats (mirrors) are oriented to focus the sun’s radiation onto a receptor situated in
a tower, where a fluid is heated to be used to activate a turbine.
These heliostats are normally controlled by computer to track the sun and thus optimize
production.
As with parabolic-troughs, water is typically avoided as thermal fluid. As already explained in
the previous chapter (section devoted to large-scale storage solutions), molten salts allow
storing the generated heat, even enabling electricity production during the night.
 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar Thermal Energy: High Temperature/CSP

Figure 10. High-temperature solar thermal

power /Concentrating solar power: power-
tower scheme. Source: Jesus Mirapeix
 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar Thermal Energy: High Temperature/CSP

A good example of a CSP plant is

the Ivanpah Solar Electric
Generating System, located in USA
between Nevada and California,
and with more than 300,000
installed heliostats (Figure 11).
This plant, that began operating in
2014, has 3 towers and a nominal
capacity of 400 MW (enough
power to supply around 140,000
homes).

Figure 11. Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System, at Mojave desert (California).
Source: Craig Butz/CC BY-SA 4.0. http://bit.ly/2CWqPNF.
 Photovoltaic Innovations
Photovoltaic Innovations
 PV technology is a cornerstone of solar energy
conversion, enabling the direct conversion of
sunlight into electrical energy.
 PV systems consist of solar panels composed
of interconnected solar cells, which are the
fundamental building blocks responsible for
converting light energy into electricity.
 The operation of PV cells relies on the PV
effect, a phenomenon discovered in the 19th
century.
 When photons from sunlight strike the surface
of a PV cell, they transfer their energy to the
atoms within the cell’s semiconductor material,
causing the release of electrons.
 These free electrons generate an electric Figure 1 shows how a typical PV cell works and
current as they flow through the cell, creating generates electricity.
usable electrical energy.
 Important and Basic concepts of Solar cells

 A solar cell or photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that converts solar energy into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect. A material or device that is capable of converting the energy
contained in the photons of solar energy into an electrical current is said to be photovoltaic.
Photovoltaics normally denoted by abbreviation PV is the field of technology and research
related to the application of solar cells to harness solar energy.
 Generally, the term Solar Cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture Solar
energy from sunlight, while the term Photovoltaic Cell is used when the source is
unspecified.
 Basically, Photovoltaic generation of power is caused by radiation that separates positive
and negative charge carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor material. When this happens in
the presence of an electric field, these charges can be pulled/pushed to the nearby metal
electrodes to produce a current in an external circuit. Such fields exist permanently at p-n
junctions as ‘built-in’ electric fields and provide the required e.m.f. for useful power
production.
 In the case of Solar cells, the impinging radiation is the solar radiation and the required
electric field is provided by a suitably designed p-n junction.
 Important and Basic concepts of Solar cells
 The term cell in photovoltaic cells or solar cells is a misnomer in the sense that it is the ‘current’
that is produced by the radiation photons and not a ‘voltage’. The cell itself provides the source of
electromagnetic force (voltage). It is to be noted that photoelectric devices are electrical current
sources driven by a flux of radiation. A majority of photovoltaic cells are silicon semi-conductor
p-n junction devices.
 It is very important to know that all impinging photons also can not release the electrons
from the atoms to become charge carriers. A photon with short enough wavelength and high
enough energy only can cause an electron in photovoltaic material to break free of the atom that
holds it.
 A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device that
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is
basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photo electric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics – such as current , voltage or resistance vary when exposed to
light.
 Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels. The
common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By itself this isn’t much – but we should remember that these
solar cells are tiny. When combined into a large solar panel, considerable amount of renewable
energy can be generated.
PN - JUNCTION – NO VOLTAGE APPLIED
P - N JUNCTION IN A SOLAR CELL
 Basic operation & working principle of solar cells

• Solar cell is basically a PN Junction diode with special

construction features so that the impinging Photons
from Solar energy liberate adequate Electron hole pairs
for generation of electric current form the Solar cell.

• As photons are absorbed, hole-electron pairs are

formed. If these mobile charge carriers reach the
vicinity of the junction, the electric field in the depletion
region will push the holes into the p-side and push the
electrons into the n-side, as shown in the figure. Figure: when photons create hole–electron
pairs near the junction, the electric field in the
• Thus p-side accumulates holes and the n-side depletion region sweeps holes into the p-side
accumulates electrons, which creates a voltage that and sweeps electrons into the n-side of the
can be used to deliver current to a load. cell.

• When an external load is connected the electrons that

are getting collected flow from n-side through the load
to p-side and recombine with the holes in the p- side.
 Basic operation & working principle of solar cells

• If electrical contacts are attached to the top and bottom

of the cell, electrons will flow out of the n-side into the
connecting wire, through the load and back to the p-
side as shown in the figure below .
• Since wire cannot conduct holes, it is only the electrons
that actually move around the circuit. When they reach
the p-side, they recombine with holes completing the
circuit.
• By convention, positive current flows in the direction
opposite to electron flow, so the current arrow in the
figure shows current going from the p-side to the load
Figure: Electrons flow from the n-side contact,
and back into the n-side.
through the load, and back to the p-side where
• (Compare this with a conventional P-N junction when they recombine with holes. Conventional
used as a forward biased Diode in which current flows current I is in the opposite direction.
in the opposite direction.)
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL (Construction of Solar Cell)
TYPE OF POWER GENERATED
SOLAR CELL EFFICIENCY
SOLAR CELL EFFICIENCY
SILICON SOLAR CELLS
WHAT’S THE CATCH
THE PV CONTENDERS
ORGANIC
 Photovoltaic Innovations
Evolution of Solar Photovoltaic

Figure. Evolution of solar PV (1941-2018). Source: Irena

(Future-of-Solar-Photovoltaic). http://bit.ly/306lIao
 Photovoltaic Innovations
Evolution of Solar Photovoltaic

Figure. Evolution of PV global capacity by country and region (2011-2021). Source: REN21 (2022 Report).
Link: https://bit.ly/3MR1R7x.
 Photovoltaic Innovations
Evolution of Solar Photovoltaic

Figure: Top 10 countries in terms of shares (%) of variable renewable energy with respect to electricity generation (2020).
Source: REN21 (2022 Report). Link: https://bit.ly/3MR1R7x.
Questions?

Thanks

E-mail:
E-mail:
mmalam.bau@gmail.com
cksaha@bau.edu.bd
 Photovoltaic Innovations
How does the photoelectric effect take place in a solar PV cell?
If a photon with a suitable energy reaches the
depletion layer of the cell (to facilitate this a thin n-
type region is needed) and is absorbed by an atom,
this will give rise to an e-/hole pair. The electric field
enables the transition of the e- to the n region (hole
to p region). If there are metallic conducting strips
attached to the cell, the e- will circulate, being
attracted by the p region and enabling an e-/hole
recombination, coming back to the original state of
the system.
Now we know the basics of solar PV cells. Even if it
seems obvious, it is worth noting that the
Figure 1 Schematic representation of PV cell operation.
photoelectric effect has dynamic behaviour, i.e. it is
Source: Jesus Mirapeix
able to generate electricity under certain given
circumstances, but it will not enable the storage of
energy. To do that, a battery will be needed.
In this equation h is the Planck constant, ν the
frequency of the photon and λ its wavelength (c is the
speed of light in empty space (vacuum)).