Engineering Technology III

Lesson 3: Solar Resources

 Solar resources
• The centre of the sun - nuclear fusion reactor converting hydrogen into helium
and so releasing energy.
• The energy generated -transmitted through hot gases to the surface with
increasing wavelength.
• Radiation emitted from surface of the sun travels through space to arrive at the
outer surface of the earth’s atmosphere.
(At the outer surface of the earth’s atmosphere the intensity of the radiation is
around 1367 W/m2)
Solar resources
 Solar resources
• Radiation enters the earth’s atmosphere it is reflected and scattered by a number
of processes
• Scattering and reflection reduce intensity of the irradiance and deflect some of
the radiation from its direct path from the sun.

For engineering purposes, the solar resource is considered in two parts.

• Direct or beam radiation - solar radiation received directly from the sun without it
having been scattered or deflected by the atmosphere.
• Diffuse radiation - solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has
been changed through scattering in the earth’s atmosphere caused by clouds
and particles.

Reflection of radiation from the ground - albedo and depends on local ground
conditions.
 Examples of solar resources
Units to describe solar resource :
• Irradiance (W/m2) is the rate at which solar radiant energy is incident on a
surface. (G)
• Insolation (J/m2 or kWh/m2) is the incident energy per unit area on a surface. This
is found by integrating the irradiance over a specified time, typically a day
although periods of a month or a year are also used. (H insolation over a day)
 Examples of solar resources

Total solar irradiance measured on a horizontal surface in California over five days of
January. The daily insolation of each of the five days is shown under the x-axis. The.
 Examples of solar resources

The variation of total, or global, irradiance (G) on a horizontal surface throughout

typical days for Cardiff, which is at latitude 51½° North, assuming a clear sky
 Examples of solar resources

The average daily direct and diffuse insolation (H) on an inclined surface at Cardiff for
each month of the year.
 Sun-Earth Geometry

The earth moves around the sun over a year in a slightly elliptical orbit. The earth
itself rotates around its polar axis over a period of 24 hours. The angle between the
polar axis and a line normal to the plane of rotation of the earth around the sun (the
ecliptic plane) is maintained at 23.5°.
 Sun-Earth Geometry
A location in the northern hemisphere = receive maximum solar energy on the
longest day when the earth’s axis is tilted towards the sun. summer solstice
 Sun-Earth Geometry
summer solstice = longest day
Winter solstice= shortest day
Solar noon = position of sun
 Sun-Earth Geometry
Sun position
• Sun reaches :
• highest point on the day of summer solstice
• lowest point on the day of winter solstice
• over the equator on days of the equinoxes
• Angle of declination δ
• varies between +23.5° @ summer solstice
-23.5
• equinoxes = 0°
 Sun-Earth Geometry
Sun position
 Sun-Earth Geometry
Sun position

n= days of the year

• for Engineering purposes δ= constant through out the day

 Sun-Earth Geometry
Sun position relative to a point on the earth
• defined by to angles
• altitude angle (β)= altitude with respect to the horizon
• azimuth angle (Z) = position with respect to due South
 Sun-Earth Geometry
Sun position relative to a point on the earth
• Altitude of solar noon βnoon
 Sun-Earth Geometry
• Hour angle (H)= number of degrees of longitude the earth must rotate before solar
noon and its position towards the east.

t= hours before solar noon

• Position of the sun as seen from earth

Careful for
early morning
and late
afternoon.
Z=>90
 Orientation of Solar Panels
• Rarely installed on a horizontal plane
• Tilt angle: angel the panel makes with the horizon
• Solar panel face due south at solar noon
 Orientation of Solar Panels
First approximation: Maximum annual energy capture
• Tilt angel= latitude of its location
• Higher latitude= tilt angle 10°-15° lower than latitude
• Northern hemisphere= ±5 ° of South
• Southern hemisphere= ±5 ° of North
• Orientation West= increase output in evening
• Orientation South= increase output in morning
 Solar Spectrum
• Energy of sun travels across vacuum of space through radiation
 Solar Spectrum
• Energy of sun travels across vacuum of space through radiation
• Light of sun=spectra distribution close to that emitted by a black body at 6000K
(external temperature of the sun)
• AMO (Air Mass Zero- indicates the solar spectrum outside the earths atmosphere
on a plane perpendicular to the sun at the mean earth-sun distance
• Solar constant- Power density of the sun’s radiation outside the earths
atmosphere
• Most of the suns energy if light is in the visible and infrared regions.
 Solar Spectrum
• Solar radiation is attenuated as it
passes through the atmosphere
• Ozone (O3) absorbs wave lengths
of the spectrum in the ultraviolet
region
• Water evaporation reduces the
energy of certain frequencies in
the infrared region
 Solar Spectrum
• Zenith angel of zero= sun is vertically overhead and the resulting spectrum is
known as the AMI spectrum
• Radiation passes through the vertical height of the atmosphere
• Limited occurrence
• Standard Test Conditions (STC) of photovoltaic panels assume a zenith angle of
48.2° and a spectrum form an Air Mass of 1.5
• Standard Test Conditions: AM 1.5, power density 1 kW/m²
 Solar Spectrum
• Standard Test Conditions (STC) of photovoltaic panels assume a zenith angle of
48.2° and a spectrum form an Air Mass of 1.5
• Standard Test Conditions: AM 1.5, power density 1 kW/m²
 Wave-particle duality of light
• Behaviour of light
• Wave
• Particles
• Sunlight consists of electromagnetic waves composed of photons of different
energies which travel at the same speed
λ=wavelength
E= energy of each photon
C= velocity of light = 2.998x10⁸ m/s
h= Planck’s constant = 6.626x10⁻³⁴Js

v = Frequency of electromagnetic radiation

 Wave-particle duality of light
• radiation with wavelength < 1.1 μm contribute to operations of a crystalline
silicon solar cell
 Summary
• sun = large fusion reaction. Surface modelled as a black body= 6 000K
• Solar radiation propagates across space and has irradiance outside earths
atmosphere of 1367W/m²=solar constant
• Solar resource consists out of:
• Direct/beam radiation (not affected by atmosphere)
• Diffuser radiation (solar radiation form sun scattered in atmosphere by
clouds and particles)
• Geocentric view of sun= simplified useful
• Angle of declination [°] n= days of the year
 Summary
• Motion of sun seen from a point on the earth
• β (altitude relative to the horizon)
• Z (azimuth relative to the south
 Summary
• Altitude angle at solar noon βnoon =90°-L+δ (L=latitude)
• Position of sun as seen from earth

• Default orientation for flat plate panels is the angel of latitude facing south
(northern hemisphere)
• Distribution of solar energy outside earths atmosphere
 Summary
• Default orientation for flat plate panels is the angel of latitude facing south
(northern hemisphere)
• Distribution of solar energy outside earths atmosphere

• Air mass is the mass of air through which

the solar irradiance passes
• Standard Test Condition for
photovoltaic modules are with
an Air Mass of 1.5 (Zenith angle 48.2°)
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