Developmental Psychology – meaning, definition and purpose

Development is a progressive series of changes that occur in a predictable pattern as the result
of interactions between biological and environmental factors. Developmental Psychology deals
with these developmental changes that occur across the life span and its influence on human
behaviour. The developmental changes include the physical (brain development, hormonal
change, motor skills etc), cognitive (changes in thinking, intellectual and language abilities),
emotional (changes in emotional expressions) and social changes (changes in relationships with
others) that happen throughout life. The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to
adapt to the environment in which they live. Developmental psychologists are interested in
common patterns of development and growth and the way in which people differ throughout
the lifespan.

It is defined as the branch of psychology concerned with interaction between physical and
psychological processes and with stages of growth from conception throughout the entire life
span (American Psychological Association)

According to Craig, Developmental Psychology is the field of study that examines patterns of
growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span

Myers define developmental psychology as the branch of psychology that studies physical,
cognitive and social changes throughout the life span (Myers)

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies intra individual (within the
individual) changes and inter individual changes within these intra individual changes (Hurlock,
Elizabeth)

Purpose of Developmental Psychology

The purpose of developmental psychology is to find out,

1. What are the common and characteristic age changes in appearance, in behavior, in
interests, and in goals from one developmental period to another
2. When these changes occur
3. What causes them
4. How they influence behavior
5. Whether they can or cannot be predicted; and
6. Whether they are individual or universal

Importance of DP in SW practice

Since the goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to the environment in
which they live, the knowledge of developmental psychology serves as a foundation for better
social work practice. It help us to know a person at a particular age more thoroughly and thereby
be better practitioners in helping them to solve their problems, whether be in groups or as
individuals. Knowledge of developmental psychology helps in better understanding of the needs,
issues, milestones, risk factors and hazards of each developmental period so that we can track
their development, identify conditions and disabilities that relate directly to the disruption of the
development process, and resolve crisis situations. It enables us to prepare people for what lies
ahead, enhance their knowledge, train and motivate them to successfully master the
developmental tasks; and help those experiencing difficulty with the tasks or those who lag
behind. It also helps in designing early interventions for particular groups; universal preventive
and developmental interventions (e.g. adolescence) so that we can reduce developmental issues
and risky behaviours characteristic of particular developmental periods.

Growth and development

The term growth and development both refers to dynamic process. Growth and development
are interdependent, interrelated process. Development is a progressive series of changes that
occur as a result of maturation and experience. It is a complex process of integrating many
structures and functions. During the life span, growth generally predominates during the first 20
years of life; but slows down during the latter part of life.

Differences between growth and development

Growth:
1. Is physical change and increase in size or number, signifies an increase, expansion, or
extension of any given tissue
2. It is an anatomical (structural) phenomenon, observable
3. It can be measured quantitatively.
4. Growth is only one aspect of development, growth may or may not bring development
5. Indicators of growth includes height, weight, bone size etc
6. The growth rate is higher in childhood.
7. Physical growth is minimal during adulthood.
Development:
1. Is an increase in the complexity of function, specialization and skill progression, also refers to
progressive evolution of a tissue
2. It is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment.
3. Development is the behavioral aspect of growth, a functional phenomenon.
4. Development can be anatomic, physiological and behavioural, resulting in new characteristics
and new abilities and higher levels of activity/function in the individual.
5. It is measured qualitatively
6. It can be physical, social, emotional or intellectual
Characteristics/Principles of Growth and Development

There is a set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth and
development. These principles or characteristics describe typical development as a predictable
and orderly process. Although there are individual differences in children's personalities, activity
levels, and timing of developmental milestones, such as ages and stages, the principles and
characteristics of development are universal patterns.

1. Development proceeds from the head downward. This is called the cephalocaudal
principle. This principle describes the direction of growth and development. Here the
control of the body, as well as improvements in the structure itself, develops first in the head
and progresses to regions farthest from the head. According to this principle, the child
gains control of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Infants develop control
of the head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few
months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age,
infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk. Coordination of
arms always precedes coordination of legs.
2. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This is the principle of
proximodistal development that also describes the direction of development. This means
that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child's arms develop
before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. Finger and
toe muscles are the last to develop in physical development.
3. Development depends on maturation and learning. Maturation refers to the sequential
characteristic of biological growth and development. Craig (1986) defines maturation as
"the physical development of an organism as it fulfills its genetic potential". The biological
changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain
and nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and
nervous system help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills.
Also, children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills
(developmental readiness). Maturational patterns are innate, that is, genetically
programmed. Development also results from the activities of the child itself which is
referred to as learning because it requires practice/repetition/training to bring about
changes in the physical structure and behavior of the individual. Learning is a relatively
permanent change in behavior (or potential behavior) as a result of experience or
practice. Maturation provides the raw material for learning and determines to a large
extent the more general patterns and sequences of the individual's behavior. Learning is
extremely important for acquiring new knowledge, skills and attitudes that are necessary
for an effective life. The child's environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the
child's experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development.
A stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her
potential. The period of greatest plasticity, when learning plays its most important role,
is in childhood. At this time, attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior are established,
and the individual's personality is molded. What is learned at this time will determine
largely the future successes or failure in the individual's adjustments to life.
 4. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex. Children use
their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example, learning
relationships between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important
ability in cognitive development. As children develop further in cognitive skills, they are
able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects and things.
5. Growth and development is a continuous process. No traits, whether physical or mental,
develop suddenly. On the contrary, they are all the product of a growth which started before
birth. Growth continues from the moment of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It
takes place at a slow, regular pace. As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills already
acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of
skills. Most children follow a similar pattern. Because development is continuous, what
happens at one stage carries over and influences the following stage or stages. In other words,
one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development.
6. Growth and development proceed from the general to specific. In all phases of
development, whether motor or mental, the child's responses are of a general sort before
they become specific. . In both prenatal and post natal development, general activity
precedes specific activities. At no time and under no conditions is the reverse the case.
This is apparent first in muscular responses. The newborn infant moves his whole body at
one time, instead of moving any one part of it. In motor development, the infant will be
able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger.
The infant's first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive,
waving arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object. Growth
occurs from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements. The
same pattern is seen in handedness. When the baby first reaches for object, he not only
uses both hands, but his legs and whole body are thrown into the response
simultaneously. Around the sixth month, the reaching response is restricted to the two
hands, and later, at approximately one year of age, to one hand. In other aspects of
development, the same sequence is seen. The baby produces general, babbling sounds
before he can say words. In building a vocabulary, he learns general words before specific.
In concept formation, the baby first distinguishes living from inanimate objects, then
human beings from animals, then different types of human beings, as white, colored,
American, or Indian. In, emotional behavior, the baby first responds to strange or unusual
objects with a general fear, which is the same in all situations. Later, his fears become
more specific and are characterized by different types of behavior in different situations.
7. There are individual rates of growth and development. Each child is different and the
rates at which individual children grow are different. Although the patterns and
sequences for growth and development are usually the same for all children, the rates at
which individual children reach developmental stages will be different.

Influence of heredity and environment on development

Heredity and environment play a vital role in the development of the personality of the individual.
We cannot separate them into water-tight compartments. Both are interrelated and
interconnected. Modern researches have shown that every trait of the individual and his every
reaction depend both on the joint impact of heredity and environment. Nature and nurture are
both potent factors in the development of the child. One is seed and the other is soil. All traits
depend both on genetic and environmental factors. It is now generally believed that the
foundation of personality comes from the maturation of heredity traits, but that these are
influenced, partly through learning in connection with direct social contacts and partly, through
conditioning. Heredity and environment interact to produce their effects. This means that the
way genes act depends on the environment in which they act. In the same way, the effects of
environment depend on the genes with which they work. Environment is nothing but a process
under suitable conditions to change the shape of a raw material just as a potter does while
making toys of mud.

Lifespan, Longevity and Life expectancy

Lifespan is the duration of time that one individual lives from its birth until the death. Lifespan
could also mean that the duration of time from the origin until the termination of anything.
Hence, this term applies to both life forms as well as non living things. Longevity (living long) is
the maximum lifespan that can be expected under ideal conditions.

Life expectancy refers to the number of years a person is expected to live, based on the statistical
average. Life expectancy is calculated at birth according to a mathematical (or a statistical) model.
The average lifespan is the life expectancy for a particular group. Life expectancy can never be
definite as it is an average value. The human life expectancy values are different in one country
from another as it varies with lifestyle factors and genetics. Lifestyle has about 70 – 80% of
possibility to affect the life expectancy.

Lifespan development and stages

Human life span is divided into ten stages based on the characteristic developmental changes in
those particular periods. Developmental stages are periods during which physical or
psychological functioning differs qualitatively from that of either earlier or later periods. Each
stage is characterized by certain developmental tasks (social expectations) and hazards specific
to that period. Chronological age is the criterion used for dividing the stages and the stages or
periods are,

• Prenatal period: from conception to birth

• Infancy: birth to the end of second week
• Babyhood (toddlerhood): end of second week to the end of second year
 • Early childhood (preschool age): two to six years
• Late childhood (school age): six to ten or twelve years
• Puberty: ten or twelve to thirteen or fourteen years
• Adolescence: thirteen or fourteen to eighteen years
• Early adulthood: eighteen to forty years
• Middle age: forty to sixty years
• Old age: sixty years to death

Developmental tasks across the life span

Havighurst define developmental task as a task which arises at or about a certain period in the
life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to happiness and to success with
later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks. Some tasks arise
mainly as a result of maturation but others develop primarily from the cultural pressures of
society. These tasks serve as guidelines for individuals to know what society expects of them at
given ages. They also motivate individuals to do what is expected out of them. It also shows
individuals what lies ahead and what they will be expected to do when they reach their next stage
of development. Although most people go through the stages more or less successfully some
may experience crisis situations, not being able to adjust with the new situations. Some may
bypass a stage of development as a result of failure in mastering tasks for that stage of
development. This may lead to developmental lag and may bring about unfavourable social
judgments.

Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

1. Babyhood & early childhood - eat solid foods

- walk
- talk
- control elimination of wastes
- relate emotionally to others
- distinguish right from wrong through development of a
conscience
- learn sex differences and sexual modesty
- achieve personal independence
- form simple concepts of social & physical reality
2. Late childhood - learn physical skills, required for games
- build healthy attitudes towards oneself
- learn to socialize with peers
- learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
- gain basic reading, writing & mathematical skills
- develop concepts necessary for everyday living
- formulate a conscience based on a value system
- achieve personal independence
- develop attitudes toward social groups & institutions
 3. Adolescence - establish more mature relationships with same-age
individuals of both sexes
- achieve a masculine or feminine social role
- accept own body
- establish emotional independence from parents
- achieve assurance of economic independence
- prepare for an occupation
- prepare for marriage & establishment of a family
- acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities
- develop a set of values that guides behavior
4. Early Adulthood - select a partner
- learn to live with a partner
- start a family
- manage a home
- establish self in a career/occupation
- assume civic responsibilities
- become part of a social group
5. Middle Adulthood - fulfill civic & social responsibilities
- maintain an economic standard of living
- assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy
adults
- relate one’s partner
- adjust to physiological changes
- adjust to aging parents
6. Old Age - adjust to physiological changes & alterations in health status
- adjust to retirement & altered income
- adjust to death of spouse
- develop affiliation with one’s age group
- meet civic & social responsibilities
- establish satisfactory living arrangements

Developmental Milestones
A developmental milestone is an ability that is achieved by most children by a certain age.
Developmental milestones can involve physical, social, emotional, cognitive, and communication
skills such as walking, sharing with others, expressing emotions, recognizing familiar sounds, and
talking. The milestones are different for each age range. There is a normal range in which a child
may reach each milestone. Developmental milestones help caregivers and health care
professionals to keep a watchful eye on children's growth. When potential problems are spotted,
earlier interventions can help lead to more successful outcomes.

There are four basic categories for developmental milestones:

1. Physical milestones involve both large-motor skills and fine-motor skills. The large-motor
skills are usually the first to develop and include sitting up, standing, crawling, and
walking. Fine-motor skills involve precise movements such as grasping a spoon, holding a
crayon, drawing shapes, and picking up small objects.
2. Cognitive milestones are centered on a child's ability to think, learn, and solve problems.
An infant learning how to respond to facial expressions and a preschooler learning the
alphabet are both examples of cognitive milestones.
3. Social and emotional milestones are centered on children gaining a better understanding
of their own emotions and the emotions of others. These milestones also involve learning
how to interact and play with other people.
4. Communication milestones involve both language and nonverbal communication. A one-
year-old learning how to say his first words and a five-year-old learning some of the basic
rules of grammar are examples of important communication milestones.

Developmental delay refers to when a child's development lags behind established

normal ranges for his or her age. A developmental delay is any significant lag in a child's
physical, cognitive, behavioral, emotional, or social development, in comparison with
norms. There are four main types of developmental delays in children. These are:

• Language or Speech delays (eg. At age 4 or older, a child whose spoken language is
hard to understand);
• Motor delays (eg. Inability to walk, sit, stand, or crawl at the appropriate age);
• Social and emotional delays (eg. a 10-year-old who kicks other children when he
wants to play a different game) and
• Cognitive delays (eg. A child over age 2 who is unable to follow simple instructions)