Shell Basics

Shells


A shell can be used in one of two ways:
 A command interpreter, used interactively
 A programming language, to write shell
scripts (your own custom commands)
 Shell Script

A shell script is just a file containing shell commands, but with a few extras:
The first line of a shell script should be a comment of the following form:

#!/bin/sh


for a Bourne shell script. Bourne shell scripts are the most common, since C
Shell scripts have buggy features.


A shell script must be readable and executable.


chmod u+rx scriptname


As with any command, a shell script has to be “in your path” to be
executed.


If “.” is not in your PATH, you must specify “./scriptname” instead of just
“scriptname”
 Shell Script Example

Here is a “hello world” shell script:

$ ls -l

-rwxr-xr-x 1 <user> 48 Feb 08 19:50 hello*

$ cat hello

#!/bin/sh

# comment lines start with the # character

echo "Hello world"

$ hello

Hello world

$


The echo command functions like a print
command in shell scripts.
 Shell Variables

The user variable name can be any sequence of letters,
digits, and the underscore character, but the first
character must be a letter.


To assign a value to a variable:

number=25

name="ABC XYZ"


There cannot be any space before or after the “=“


Internally, all values are stored as strings.
 Shell Variables


To use a variable, precede the name with a
“$”:
 $ cat test1
 #!/bin/sh
 number=25
 name="XYZ ABC"
 echo "$number $name"
 $ test1
 25 XYZ ABC
 $
 Shell Variables

Use the read command to get and store
input from the user.
$ cat test2
#!/bin/sh
echo "Enter name: "
read name
echo "Enter Course: "
$ test2
read number
Enter name:
echo “Enter Year: ”
XYZ
read y
Enter Course:
echo "$name is studying in
B.Tech.
$number $y year"
Enter Year
3rd
XYZ is studying in B.Tech. 3rd year
 Variables in Shell

• In UNIX (Shell), there are 2 types of variables:

– System variables - Created and maintained by
Linux itself. This type of variable defined in
CAPITAL LETTERS.
– User defined variables (UDV) - Created and
maintained by user. This type of variable defined
in {(a-z)+(0-9)+_}* not starting with a digit.
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
Defining Variables
– variable_name=variable_value
• Variables of this type are called scalar variables.
A scalar variable can hold only one value at a
time.
• The shell enables us to store any value you want
in a variable.
– VAR1=“Zara Ali”
– VAR2=100
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
Accessing Variable Values
• To access the value stored in a variable, prefix its
name with the dollar sign ( $)
– For example, following script would access the value of
defined variable NAME and would print it on STDOUT:
#!/bin/sh
NAME=“XYZ”
echo $NAME
This would produce following value:
XYZ
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
Read-only Variables
•The shell provides a way to mark variables as read-only by using the
readonly command.
•After a variable is marked read-only, its value cannot be changed.

#!/bin/sh
NAME=“DEEKAY"
readonly NAME
NAME=“DIVYA"

This would produce following result: /bin/sh: NAME: This variable is read
only.
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
Unsetting Variables
• Unsetting or deleting a variable tells the shell to remove the variable from the list
of variables that it tracks.
• Once you unset a variable, you would not be able to access stored value in the
variable.

#!/bin/sh
NAME=“XYZ"
unset NAME
echo $NAME
Above example would not print anything.

>>You cannot use the unset command to unset variables that are marked
readonly.
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
Null Variables
• You can define NULL variable as follows (NULL variable is
variable which has no value at the time of definition)
For e.g.
$ vech=
$ vech=""
Try to print it's value by issuing following command:
$ echo $vech
Nothing will be shown because variable has no value i.e.
NULL variable.
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
Special Variables
• That we can’t use as normal variables.
Variables Description
$0 The filename of the current script.
$n These variables correspond to the arguments with which a
script was invoked. Here n is a positive decimal number
corresponding to the position of an argument (the first
argument is $1, the second argument is $2, and so on).
$# The number of arguments supplied to a script.
$* All the arguments are double quoted. If a script receives
two arguments, $* is equivalent to $1 $2.
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
Special Variables
Variables Description

$@ All the arguments are individually double quoted. If a script

receives two arguments, $@ is equivalent to $1 $2.

$? The exit status of the last command executed.

$$ The process number of the current shell. For shell scripts, this
is the process ID under which they are executing.

$! The process number of the last background command.

 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
• Special Variables
– The command-line arguments $1, $2,
$3,...$9 are positional parameters, with
$0 pointing to the actual command,
program, shell script, or function and
$1, $2, $3, ...$9 as the arguments to
the command.
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
#!/bin/sh
echo "File Name: $0"
echo "First Parameter : $1"
echo “Second Parameter : $2"
echo "Quoted Values: $@"
echo "Quoted Values: $*”
echo "Total Number of Paramers : $#”

OUTPUT
./test.sh divya kumar
File Name : ./test.sh
First Parameter : divya
Second Parameter : kumar
Quoted Values: divya kumar
Quoted Values: divya kumar
Total Number of Paramers : 2
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
• Special Parameters $* & $@
• The "$*" special parameter takes the
entire list as one argument with spaces
between.
• The "$@" special parameter takes the
entire list and separates it into separate
arguments.
 Variables in Shell (cntd…)
• Special Parameters $* & $@
#!/bin/sh
for TOKEN in $*
do
echo $TOKEN
done
OUTPUT
./test.sh divya kumar 25 Years Old
divya
kumar
25
Years
Old
 EXIT Status
• The $? variable represents the exit status of
the previous command.
• Exit status is a numerical value returned by
every command upon its completion.
• As a rule, most commands return an exit
status of 0 if they were successful, and 1 if
they were unsuccessful.
 Special Characters & Quoting
• List of Special Characters and what they mean

<RETURN> Execute command

# Start a comment
<SPACE> Argument separator
` Command substitution
" Weak Quotes
' Strong Quotes
\ Single Character Quote
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• List of Special Characters and what they mean

& Run program in background

? Match one character
* Match any number of characters
; Command separator
;; End of Case statement
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• List of Special Characters and what they mean

~ Home Directory
~user User's Home Directory
! History of Commands (csh only)
$# Number of arguments to script
$* Arguments to script
$@ Original arguments to script
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• List of Special Characters and what they mean

$? Status of previous command

$$ Process identification number
$! PID of last background job
&& Short-circuit AND
|| Short-circuit OR
[] Match range of characters OR Test
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• List of Special Characters and what they mean

(cmd;cmd) Runs cmd;cmd as a sub-shell

{cmd;cmd } Runs cmd;cmd without subshell
>file Output to
>>file Append output to
<file Input from
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• Quoting is used to remove the special

meaning of certain characters or words to
the shell.
• Quoting can be used to disable special
treatment for special characters, to prevent
reserved words from being recognized as
such, and to prevent parameter expansion.
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• Backslash (\)
Any character immediately following the
backslash loses its special meaning.
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• Single quote (‘)

All special characters between these quotes
lose their special meaning.

echo <-$1500.**>; (update?) [y|n]

echo \<-\$1500.\*\*\>\; \(update\?\) \[y\|n\]
echo '<-$1500.**>; (update?) [y|n]'
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• Single quote (‘)

>> HOW TO CORRECTLY WRITE…??
echo divya’s book
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• Double quote (“)

Enclosing characters in double quotes
preserves the literal value of all characters
within the quotes, with the exception of
$, `, and \.
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

• Double quote (“)

$ for parameter substitution.
Backquotes for command substitution.
\$ to enable literal dollar signs.
\` to enable literal backquotes.
\" to enable embedded double quotes.
\\ to enable embedded backslashes.
 Special Characters & Quoting (cntd…)

VAR=BOB
echo '$VAR owes -$15; [ on (`date +%m/%d`)]'
>>>>>$VAR owes -$15; [ on (`date +%m/%d`)]

echo “$VAR owes -$15; [ on (`date +%m/%d`)]”

>>>>> BOB owes -$15; [ on (03/05) ]
 Operators in Shell
• There are following operators which we are
going to discuss:
• Arithmetic Operators.
• Relational Operators.
• Boolean Operators.
• String Operators.
• File Test Operators.
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
• Arithmetic Operators
–Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then:
• + `expr $a + $b` will give 30
• - `expr $a - $b` will give -10
• * `expr $a * $b` will give 200
• / `expr $b / $a` will give 2
• %`expr $b % $a` will give 0 (modulus or reminder)
• = a=$b will assign value of b into a (Assignment)
• == [ $a == $b ] would return false (equality)
• != [ $a != $b ] would return true (inequality)

– Mind the space for the last 2

 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
• Relational Operators
–Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20
then:
• -eq [ $a -eq $b ] is not true.
• -ne [ $a -ne $b ] is true.
• -gt [ $a -gt $b ] is not true.
• -lt [ $a -lt $b ] is true.
• -ge [ $a -ge $b ] is not true.
• -le [ $a -le $b ] is true.
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
• Relational Operators
Example:
#!/bin/sh
a=10 b=20
if [ $a -eq $b ]
then
echo "$a -eq $b : a is equal to b"
else
echo "$a -eq $b: a is not equal to b“
fi
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
• Boolean Operators
–Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then:
! This is logical negation.
[ ! false ] is true.

-o This is logical OR.

[ $a -lt 20 -o $b -gt 100 ] is true.

-a This is logical AND.

[ $a -lt 20 -a $b -gt 100 ] is false.
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
• String Operators (=, !=)
Example:
#!/bin/sh

a="abc"
b="efg"

if [ $a = $b ]
# vice versa for !=
then
echo "$a = $b : a is equal to b"
else
echo "$a = $b: a is not equal to b"
fi
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
if [ -z $a ]
then
echo "-z $a : string length is zero"
else
echo "-z $a : string length is not zero"
fi

if [ -n $a ]
then
echo "-n $a : string length is not zero"
else
echo "-n $a : string length is zero"
Fi
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
•File Test Operators
•Example
#!/bin/sh

file="somedir/test.sh"
if [ -r $file ]
then
echo "File has read access"
else
echo "File does not have read access"
fi
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
if [ -w $file ]
#similar for execute x
then
echo "File has write permission"
else
echo "File does not have write permission"
fi
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
if [ -f $file ]
then
echo "File is an ordinary file"
else
echo "This is sepcial file“
fi
 Operators in Shell (cntd…)
________________
d for directory;
s for size gt zero;
e for file exists;
b for block file;
c for character file;
 Extra thoughts
• More operators in csh:
<< >>
&|
&& ||
++
--
-o file (if USER owns the file)
<op>=
History lists
 Arrays
• We can use a single array to store all the
above mentioned names. This is expressed as
follows:
NAME[0]="ABC"
NAME[1]="DEF"
NAME[2]="ghi"
NAME[3]="Jkl"
NAME[4]="XYZ"
 Arrays (cntd…)
Another Syntax for defining arrays
array_name=(value1 ... valuen)

Example:
array=( zero one two three four five )
# Element 0 1 2 3 4 5
 Arrays (cntd…)
Yet another Syntax for defining arrays
array=( [0]="first element" [1]="second
element" [3]="fourth element" )
 Arrays (cntd…)
Fetching the values
Expression Meaning

${array[0]} Value of first element

${array:1} Parameter extension from

first character
${#array[0]} or ${#array} Length of first element

${#array[*]}
Number of elements in
${#array[@]} array
 Arrays (cntd…)
Fetching the values
Expression Meaning

${array[0]} Value of first element

${array:1} Parameter extension from

first character
${#array[0]} or ${#array} Length of first element

${#array[*]}
Number of elements in
${#array[@]} array
 Arrays (cntd…)
String operations on arrays
#!/bin/bash
arrayZ=( one two three four five five )

# Trailing Substring Extraction

echo ${arrayZ[@]:0}
# one two three four five five # All elements.
echo ${arrayZ[@]:1}
# two three four five five # All elements following element[0].
echo ${arrayZ[@]:1:2}
# two three # Only the two elements after element[0].
 Arrays (cntd…)
String operations on arrays
#String Removal

echo ${arrayZ[@]#f*r}
# Removes shortest match from front of string(s).

echo ${arrayZ[@]##f*r}
## Removes longest match from front of string(s).

echo ${arrayZ[@]%t*e}
% Removes shortest match from back of string(s).

echo ${arrayZ[@]%%t*e}
%% Removes shortest match from back of string(s).
 Arrays (cntd…)
String operations on arrays
# Substring Replacement

echo ${arrayZ[@]/five/WXYZ}
# Replace first occurrence of substring with replacement.

echo ${arrayZ[@]//five/YYYY}
# Replace all occurrences of substring.

Then >>>> echo ${arrayZ[@]//five/} will do??

 Arrays (cntd…)
Example to load the contents of a file into array

$cat sample_file
1abc
2defg
 Arrays (cntd…)
Example to load the contents of a file into array

#!/bin/bash
filename=sample_file
declare -a array1
array1=( `cat "$filename"`)
echo ${array1[@]}
element_count=${#array1[*]}
echo $element_count
______________________
1 a b c 2 d e fg
8