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UNIT I - Basics of C Programming - notes cs3251

programming in c (Anna University)

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CS3251 PROGRAMMING IN C L T P C
3 0 0 3
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the constructs of C Language.
 To develop C Programs using basic programming constructs
 To develop C programs using arrays and strings
 To develop modular applications in C using functions
 To develop applications in C using pointers and structures
 To do input/output and file handling in C

UNIT I BASICS OF C PROGRAMMING 9

Introduction to programming paradigms – Applications of C Language - Structure of C program - C
programming: Data Types - Constants – Enumeration Constants - Keywords – Operators: Precedence and
Associativity - Expressions - Input/Output statements, Assignment statements – Decision making statements
- Switch statement - Looping statements – Preprocessor directives - Compilation process

UNIT II ARRAYS AND STRINGS 9

Introduction to Arrays: Declaration, Initialization – One dimensional array –Two dimensional arrays -
String operations: length, compare, concatenate, copy – Selection sort, linear and binary search.

UNIT III FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS 9

Modular programming - Function prototype, function definition, function call, Built-in functions (string
functions, math functions) – Recursion, Binary Search using recursive functions –Pointers – Pointer
operators – Pointer arithmetic – Arrays and pointers – Array of pointers – Parameter passing: Pass by value,
Pass by reference.

UNIT IV STRUCTURES AND UNION 9

Structure - Nested structures – Pointer and Structures – Array of structures – Self referential structures –
Dynamic memory allocation - Singly linked list – typedef – Union - Storage classes and Visibility.

UNIT V FILE PROCESSING 9

Files – Types of file processing: Sequential access, Random access – Sequential access file - Random access
file - Command line arguments.

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CS3251 – PROGRAMMING IN C
Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of the course, the students will be able to
CO1: Demonstrate knowledge on Programming constructs
CO2: Develop simple applications in C using basic constructs
CO3: Design and implement applications using arrays and strings
CO4: Develop and implement modular applications in C using functions.
CO5: Develop applications in C using structures and pointers.
CO6: Design applications using sequential and random access file processing.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:

1. ReemaThareja, “Programming in C”, Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2016.

2. Kernighan, B.W and Ritchie,D.M, “The C Programming language”,
Second Edition, Pearson Education, 2015.

REFERENCES:
1. Paul Deitel and Harvey Deitel, “C How to Program with an Introduction to C++”,
Eighth edition, Pearson Education, 2018.
2. Yashwant Kanetkar, Let us C, 17th Edition, BPB Publications, 2020.
3. Byron S. Gottfried, “Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of
Programming with C”, McGraw-Hill Education, 1996.
4. Pradip Dey, Manas Ghosh, “Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C”, Second
5. Edition, Oxford University Press, 2013.
6. Anita Goel and Ajay Mittal, “Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C”,
1st Edition, Pearson Education, 2013.

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CS3251 – PROGRAMMING IN C
Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

Introduction of Programming Paradigms

Paradigm can also be termed as method to solve some problem or do some task.
Programming paradigm is an approach to solve problem using some programming
language or also we can say it is a method to solve a problem using tools and techniques that
are available to us following some approach.

1. Imperative programming paradigm: It is one of the oldest programming paradigm. It

features close relation to machine architecture. It is based on Von Neumann architecture. It
works by changing the program state through assignment statements. It performs step by
step task by changing state. The main focus is on how to achieve the goal. The paradigm
consists of several statements and after execution of all the result is stored.
Advantages:
1. Very simple to implement
2. It contains loops, variables etc.
Disadvantage:
1. Complex problem cannot be solved
2. Less efficient and less productive
3. Parallel programming is not possible

Examples of Imperative programming paradigm:

C : developed by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson
Fortran : developed by John Backus for IBM
Basic : developed by John G Kemeny and Thomas E Kurtz

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CS3251 – PROGRAMMING IN C
Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

Imperative programming is divided into three broad categories: Procedural, OOP and
parallel processing.
These paradigms are as follows:
Procedural programming paradigm – This paradigm emphasizes on procedure in
terms of under lying machine model. There is no difference in between procedural and
imperative approach. It has the ability to reuse the code and it was boon at that time
when it was in use because of its reusability.
Examples of Procedural programming paradigm:
C : developed by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson
C++ : developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
Java : developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems
ColdFusion : developed by J J Allaire
Pascal : developed by Niklaus Wirth

Object oriented programming – The program is written as a collection of classes and

object which are meant for communication. The smallest and basic entity is object and
all kind of computation is performed on the objects only. More emphasis is on data
rather procedure. It can handle almost all kind of real life problems which are today in
scenario.
Advantages:
 Data security
 Inheritance
 Code reusability
 Flexible and abstraction is also present

Parallel processing approach – Parallel processing is the processing of program

instructions by dividing them among multiple processors. A parallel processing system
posses many numbers of processor with the objective of running a program in less time
by dividing them. This approach seems to be like divide and conquer. Examples are
NESL (one of the oldest one) and C/C++ also supports because of some library function.

2. Declarative programming paradigm:

It is divided as Logic, Functional, Database. In computer science the declarative
programming is a style of building programs that expresses logic of computation without
talking about its control flow. It often considers programs as theories of some logic. It may
simplify writing parallel programs. The focus is on what needs to be done rather how it
should be done basically emphasize on what code is actually doing. It just declares the result
we want rather how it has be produced. This is the only difference between imperative (how
to do) and declarative (what to do) programming paradigms. Getting into deeper we would
see logic, functional and database.
Logic programming paradigms – It can be termed as abstract model of computation. It
would solve logical problems like puzzles, series etc. In logic programming we have a
knowledge base which we know before and along with the question and knowledge base
which is given to machine, it produces result.

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Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

Functional programming paradigms – The functional programming paradigms has its

roots in mathematics and it is language independent. The key principle of this paradigm
is the execution of series of mathematical functions. The central model for the
abstraction is the functions which are meant for some specific computation and not the
data structure. Data are loosely coupled to functions. The functions hide their
implementation. Function can be replaced with their values without changing the
meaning of the program. Some of the languages like perl, JavaScript mostly uses this
paradigm.

Database/Data driven programming approach – This programming methodology is

based on data and its movement. Program statements are defined by data rather than
hard-coding a series of steps. A database program is the heart of a business information
system and provides file creation, data entry, update, query and reporting functions.
There are several programming languages that are developed mostly for database
application. For example SQL. It is applied to streams of structured data, for filtering,
transforming, aggregating (such as computing statistics), or calling other programs. So it
has its own wide application.

Real-World Applications of C

The use of the C programming language is not limited to the development of operating
systems and applications. It is also used in GUI development, IDE development etc. Some
uses of C language are:-

 Operating Systems
 Assemblers
 Text Editors
 Print Spoolers
 Modern Programs
 Databases
 Utilities

1. Operating Systems:-

With the help of C, you can write your own operating system. Isn’t it cool? The C
programming language is used to develop windows and linux kernels and also the Apple OS
X kernel.

2. Graphical User Interface:-

It stands for Graphical User Interface. Apart from creating operating systems, C is also used
to develop popular adobe softwares such as photoshop, premier pro, After Effects etc.

3. Embedded Systems:-

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In daily life, we use different embedded systems like coffee machines, microwaves, climate
control systems etc. C makes it easy to develop these systems.

4. Database:-

Popular database management software, MySQL was developed using the C programming
language.

5. Ease of Computation:-

C provides faster computation in programs. The implementation of algorithms and data

structures is swift in C. With the help of C, you can perform high degree calculations such
as MATLAB, Mathematica etc.

6. Gaming:-

C programming is relatively faster than Java or Python. C language has been used in various
gaming applications and graphics. Many popular games like Tic-Tac-Toe, The Snake game,
Sudoku etc. are developed using the C language.

7. Development of New languages:-

The C language is fast and easy to understand. So many programming languages like Java,
Python, PHP etc. get influenced by this. Even the libraries of Python are developed using C.
The syntax and control structures of PERL, PHP and C++ are based upon the C language.

8. Assemblers:-

Assemblers are mainly used to translate assembly level language to machine level language.
C also helped in developing GNU assembler.

9. Text Editors:-

C also helped in creating various text editors like Vim, Gedit etc.

10. Interpreters:-

You can also create language interpreters using the C programming langauge. C helped in
developing different programming language interpreters like Python and MATLAB
interpreters etc.

11. Compiler Design:-

C also helped in designing several popular compilers like Clang C, MINGW, Apple C etc.
This is one of the most popular uses of C language.

COMPILATION AND LINKING PROCESSES (EXECUTING THE PROGRAM)

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Following steps are needed to execute the program.

Creation of program: Programs should be written in C editor.

Save Program: Program is saved with .c extension.

Preprocessor Directives: They are executed before the compiler compiles the source code.
E.g. #include, #define

Compile Program:
 Compilation can be done by using compile option from Compile menu. Shortcut
key is Alt+F9.
 After the compilation, errors & warnings are displayed. All the syntax errors are
removed from program during compilation.
 The source program statements should be translated into object programs for
execution. If there is no error, now we can execute the program.
 If there is any error, then the programmer should correct it.
Linking
 Linking keeps all program files and functions required by the program together.
 For example, if the programmer is using pow() function, then the object code of
this function should be brought from math.h library and linked to the main()
program.
Executing the Program:
 After compilation, the executable object code will be loaded in the computer’s
main memory and the program is executed.
 In case of logic or data errors in the program, the source program is altered and
all the earlier initiated steps such as compilation, linking and execution are
repeated.
 Execution can be done by going to Run menu and invoking run option.
 Shortcut key is Ctrl+F9

See the output:

 Short cut key for seeing the output is Alt+F5 or we can choose user screen option
from windows menu.

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Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

Source Program in editor

Pre-processor

Compile Source Program

Syntax error

Linking Process

Input Again Object code

Input error Logic error

Run time error Compiler time error

OUTPUT OF THE PROGRAM

Execution of C program

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Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

STRUCTURE OF A C PROGRAM
In general, a C program is composed of the following sections:
Section 1: Pre-processor directives
Section 2: Global declarations
Section 3: Functions
Section 1 and 2 are optional, Section 3 is compulsory.
Documentation Section

Pre-processor directives

Definition Section and Global declarations

void main()

{
Structure of a
Declaration part
C
ProgramExecutable part

Sub Program Section

Body of the Sub

}
Comments:
 Comments are used to convey a message and used to increase the readability of a
program.
 They are not processed by the compiler.
There are two types of comments:
1. Single line comment
2. Multi line comment
Single line comment
A single line comment starts with two forward slashes (//) and is automatically
terminated with the end of the line.
E.g. //First C program
Multi-line comment
A multi-line comment starts with /* and terminates with */.A multi-line comment is
used when multiple lines of text are to be commented.
E.g. /* This program is used to find
Area of the Circle */
Section 1.Preprocessor Directive section
 The preprocessor directive section is optional.

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 The pre-processor statement begins with # symbol and is also called the pre-
processor directive.
 These statements instruct the compiler to include C preprocessors such as header
files and symbolic constants before compiling the C program.
 The preprocessor directive is terminated with a new line character and not with a
semicolon.
 They are executed before the compiler compiles the source code.
Some of the pre-processor statements are listed below:
(i)Header files
#include<stdio.h> - to be included to use standard I/O functions : prinf(),scanf()
#include<math.h> -to be included to use mathematical functions :eg)sqrt()
(ii)Symbolic constants
#define PI 3.1412
#define TRUE 1

Section 2: Global declaration Section

This section is used to declare a global variable. These variables are declared before the
main() function as well as user defined functions.
Global variables are variables that are used in more than one function.

Section 3: Function Section

This section is compulsory. This section can have one or more functions. Every
program written in C language must contain main () function. The execution of every C
program always begins with the function main ().
Every function consists of 2 parts
1. Header of the function
2. Body of the function
1. Header of the function
The general form of the header of the function is
[return_type] function_name([argument_list])
2. Body of the function
The body of the function consists of a set of statements enclosed within curly
brackets commonly known as braces. The statements are of two types.
1. Non executable statements:
These are declaration statements, which declares the entire variables used.
Variable initialization is also coming under these statements.
2. Executable statements :
Other statements following the declaration statements are used to perform
various tasks. For example printf function call statement.
Non-executable statements are written first and then executable statements are
written

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CS3251 – PROGRAMMING IN C
Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

E.g. C Program

Line 1: // First C program

Line2: #include<stdio.h>
Line3: main()
Line4: {
Line5 Printf(“Hello”);
Line6 }

Line1 is a comment; Line 2 is a preprocessor directive. Line3 is a header of the function main.
Line 4, 5, 6 form the body of main function.
Example Program:
/*Addition of two numbers*/ Documentation Section
#include<stdio.h> Pre-processor directives
#define A 10 Definition Section
int c; Global declarations
int sum(int,int);
main() Main() functions
{
int b;
printf(“Emter the value for B:”);
scanf(“%d”,&b); Execution Part
c=sum(b);
printf(“\n Answer=%d”,c);
getch();
}
int sum(int y)
{
c=A+Y; Sub Program
return(c);
}
PROGRAMMING RULES
1. All statements should be written in lower case letters. Upper case letters are only used
for symbolic constants.
2. Blank spaces cannot be used while declaring a variable, keyword, constant and
function.
3. The programmer can write the statement anywhere between the two braces following
the declaration part.
4. The user can also write one or more statements in one line by separating
semicolon (;).Ex:
a=b+c;
d=b*c;
or

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a=b+c; d=b*c;
5. The opening and closing braces should be balanced. For example, if opening braces are
four, then closing braces should also be four.

1.3CONSTANTS
A constant is an entity whose value can’t be changed during the execution of a program.
Constants are classified as:
1. Literal constants
2. Qualified constants
3. Symbolic constants
1.3.1 Literal constants
Literal constant or just literal denotes a fixed value, which may be an integer, floating
point number, character or a string.
Literal constants are of the following types.
1. Integer Literal constant
2. Floating point Literal constant
3. Character Literal constant
4. String Literal constant

Integer Literal constant

Integer Literal constants are integer values like -1, 2, 8 etc. The rules for writing integer
literal constant are:
 An Integer Literal constant must have at least one digit
 It should not have any decimal point
 It can be either positive or negative.
 No special characters and blank spaces are allowed.
 A number without a sign is assumed as positive.
 Octal constants start with 0.
 Hexadecimal constant start with 0x or 0X
Floating point Literal constant
Floating point Literal constants are values like -23.1, 12.8, 4e8 etc.. It can be written in
a fractional form or in an exponential form.
The rules for writing Floating point Literal constants in a fractional form:
 A fractional floating point Literal constant must have at least one digit.
 It should have a decimal point.
 It can be either positive or negative.
 No special characters and blank spaces are allowed.

The rules for writing Floating point Literal constants in an exponential form:
 A Floating point Literal constants in an exponential form has two parts: the
mantissa part and the exponent part. Both are separated by e or E.
 The mantissa part can be either positive or negative. The default sign is
positive.
 The mantissa part should have at least one digit.
 The mantissa part can have a decimal point.
 The exponent part should have at least one digit

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 The exponent part cannot have a decimal point.

 No special characters and blank spaces are allowed.

Character Literal constant

A Character Literal constant can have one or at most two characters enclosed within
single quotes. E.g, ‘A’ , ‘a’ , ‘ n ‘.
It is classified into:
 Printable character literal constant
 Non-Printable character literal constant.
Printable character literal constant
All characters except quotation mark, backslash and new line characters enclosed within single
quotes form a Printable character literal constant. Ex: ‘A’ , ‘#’
Non-Printable character literal constant.
Non-Printable character literal constants are represented with the help of escape sequences. An
escape sequence consists of a backward slash (i.e. \) followed by a character and both enclosed
within single quotes.

String Literal constant

A String Literal constant consist of a sequence of characters enclosed within double
quotes. Each string literal constant is implicitly terminated by a null character.
E.g. “ABC”
1.3.2 Qualified constants:
Qualified constants are created by using const qualifier.
E.g. const char a = ‘A’
The usage of const qualifier places a lock on the variable after placing the value in it. So we
can’t change the value of the variable a

1.3.3 Symbolic constants

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Symbolic constants are created with the help of the define preprocessor directive. For ex
#define PI= 3.14 defines PI as a symbolic constant with the value 3.14. Each symbolic constant
is replaced by its actual value during the pre-processing stage.

1.4 VARIABLES

Definition:
A variable is an entity whose value can change during the execution of a program. A
variable is the name given to the memory location.
Eg: 1) Average
2) Height

Rules for defining variables

 They must begin with a letter or underscore.
 The variable name should not be a C keyword.
 The variable names may be a combination of upper and lower characters.
 White space and special characters are not allowed.
 Variable names are case sensitive. i.e abc is different from Abc

Declaration of Variables
 Every identifier must be declared before it is used.
 To declare an identifier declaration statement is used.
 The declaration statement is used to introduce the name of an identifier with its data
type to the compiler. It also reserves memory

The syntax of declaring a variable is as follows:

Data_type variable_name

Example:
int age;
char m;
int a, b, c;

Initializing Variables
Variables declared can be assigned or initialized using an assignment operator ‘=’. The
declaration and initialization can also be done in the same line.
Syntax: variable_name = constant
or
data_type variable_name = constant

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1.5 DATA TYPES

Data type determines the possible values that an identifier can have and the valid
operations that can be applied on it.

In C language data types are broadly classified as:

1. Basic data types(Primitive data types)
2. Derived data types
3. User-Defined data types
1. Basic data types:
There are five basic data types:
(i) Character - char
(ii) Integer - int
(iii) Single-Precision floating point - float
(iv) Double Precision floating point - double
(v) No value available - void
Data types and their memory requirements

S.No Data type No of bytes Range

required
1 Char 1 -128 to 127
2 Int 2 -32768 to 32767
3 Float 4 3.4*10-38 to
3.4*10 38
4 Double 8 1.7*10-308 to
1.7*10308
5 Unsigned char 1 0 to 255

Derived data types

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These data types are derived from the basic data types. Derived data types available in
C are:
1. Array type eg. Char[ ], int [ ]
2. Pointer type eg. Char*, int*
3. Function type eg. int (int,int), float(int)

User-defined data types

The C language provides the flexibility to the user to create new data types. These newly
created data types are called user-defined data types. The user defined data types available in C
can be created by using:
1. Structure
2. Union
3. Enumeration

1.5.1 Type qualifiers and Type Modifiers

The declaration statement can optionally have type qualifiers or type modifiers or both.

1.5.1.1.1Type qualifier
A type qualifier is used to indicate the special properties of data within an object. It
never affects the range of values & the arithmetic properties of the declared object.
Two type qualifiers available in C are:
Const qualifier: Object value will not be changed during the execution of a
program
Volatile qualifier
1.5.1.2 Type Modifiers
A type modifier modifies the base type to yield a new type. It modifies the range and the
arithmetic properties of the base type.
Type modifiers and the corresponding keywords available in C are:
 Signed (signed)
 Unsigned (unsigned)
 Short (short)
 Long (long)

1.6 Expressions Using Operators in “C”

An expression is a sequence of operators and operands that specifies computation of a
value.
For e.g, a=2+3 is an expression with three operands a,2,3 and 2 operators = & +

Operands
An operand specifies an entity on which an operation is to be performed. It can be a
variable name, a constant, a function call.
E.g: a=2+3 Here a, 2 & 3 are operands

Operator

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An operator is a symbol that is used to perform specific mathematical or logical

manipulations.
For e.g, a=2+3 Here = & + are the operators

Simple Expressions & Compound Expressions

An expression that has only one operator is known as a simple expression.
E.g: a+2
An expression that involves more than one operator is called a compound expression.
E.g: b=2+3*5

Precedence of operators
 The precedence rule is used to determine the order of application of operators in
evaluating sub expressions.
 Each operator in C has a precedence associated with it.
 The operator with the highest precedence is operated first.
Associativity of operators
The associativity rule is applied when two or more operators are having same
precedence in the sub expression.
An operator can be left-to-right associative or right-to-left associative.

Category Operators Associativity Precedence

Unary +, -, !, ~, ++, - -, &, sizeof Right to left Level-1
Multiplicative *, /, % Left to right Level-2
Additive +, - Left to right Level-3
Shift << , >> Left to right Level-4
Relational <, <=, >, >= Left to right Level-5

Rules for evaluation of expression

• First parenthesized sub expressions are evaluated first.
• If parentheses are nested, the evaluation begins with the innermost sub expression.
• The precedence rule is applied to determine the order of application of operators in
evaluating sub expressions.

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• The associability rule is applied when two or more operators are having same
precedence in the sub expression.

1.6.1 Classification of Operators

The operators in C are classified on the basis of
1) The number of operands on which an operator operates
2) The role of an operator
1.6.1.1 Classification based on Number of Operands
Types:
1. Unary Operator: A unary operator operates on only one operand. Some of the unary
operators are,

Operator Meaning
- Minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
& Address- of operator
sizeof sizeof operator

2. Binary Operator: A binary operator operates on two operands. Some of the binary
operators are,

Operator Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication

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/ Division
% Modular
Division
&& Logical AND
3. Ternary Operator
A ternary operator operates on 3 operands. Conditional o`perator (i.e. ?:) is the
ternary operator.

1.6.1.2 Classification based on role of operands

Based upon their role, operators are classified as,
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Bitwise Operators
5. Assignment Operators
6. Miscellaneous Operators
1. Arithmetic Operators
They are used to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division etc.

A=10 & B=20

Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30
A - B will give -
- Subtracts second operand from the first
10
A * B will give
* Multiplies both operands
200
/ The division operator is used to find the quotient. B / A will give 2
% Modulus operator is used to find the remainder B%A will give 0
Unary plus & minus is used to indicate the
+,- +A, -A
algebraic sign of a value.

Increment operator
The operator ++ adds one to its operand.
 ++a or a++ is equivalent to a=a+1
 Prefix increment (++a) operator will increment the variable BEFORE the
expression is evaluated.
 Postfix increment operator (a++) will increment AFTER the expression
evaluation.
 E.g.

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1. c=++a. Assume a=2 so c=3 because the value of a is incremented and then it
is assigned to c.
2. d=b++ Assume b=2 so d=2 because the value of b is assigned to d before it is
incremented.

Decrement operator
The operator – subtracts one from its operand.
 --a or a-- is equivalent to a=a+1
 Prefix decrement (--a) operator will decrement the variable BEFORE the
expression is evaluated.
 Postfix decrement operator (a--) will decrement AFTER the expression
evaluation.
 E.g.
1. c=--a. Assume a=2 so c=1 because the value of a is decremented and then
it is assigned to c.
2. d=b-- Assume b=2 so d=2 because the value of b is assigned to d before it
is decremented.
2. Relational Operators

 Relational operators are used to compare two operands. There are 6 relational
operators in C, they are

Operator Meaning of Operator Example

5==3 returns
== Equal to false (0)
5>3 returns true
> Greater than (1)
5<3 returns false
< Less than (0)
5!=3 returns
!= Not equal to true(1)
Greater than or 5>=3 returns true
>= equal to (1)
Less than or equal 5<=3 return false
<= to (0)

 If the relation is true, it returns value 1 and if the relation is false, it

returns value 0.
 An expression that involves a relational operator is called as a condition. For e.g
a<b is a condition.
3. Logical Operators

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 Logical operators are used to logically relate the sub-expressions. There are 3
logical operators in C, they are
 If the relation is true, it returns value 1 and if the relation is false, it
returns value 0 .

Meaning of
Operator Operator Example Description

It returns true when

Logial If c=5 and d=2 then,((c==5) both conditions are
&& AND && (d>5)) returns false. true
If c=5 and d=2 It returns true when
Logical then, ((c==5) || (d>5)) returns at-least one of the
|| OR true. condition is true
Logical If c=5 then, !(c==5) returns It reverses the state
! NOT false. of the operand

Truth tables of logical operations

condition 1 condition 2 NOT X X AND Y X OR Y
(e.g., X) (e.g., Y) (~X) ( X && Y ) ( X || Y )
False false true false false
False true true false true
true false false false true
true true false true true

4. Bitwise Operators
C language provides 6 operators for bit manipulation. Bitwise operator operates on the
individual bits of the operands. They are used for bit manipulation.

Operators Meaning of operators

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
~ Bitwise complement
<< Shift left
>> Shift right

Truth tables

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p Q p&q p|q p^q

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
E.g.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
& 00011001
________
00001000 = 8 (In decimal)
Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00011101 = 29 (In decimal)

3 << 2 (Shift Left)

0011
1100=12

3 >> 1 (Shift Right)

0011
0001=1

5. Assignment Operators
To assign a value to the variable assignment operator is used.
Operators Example Explanation
Simple assignment operator = sum=10 10 is assigned to variable sum
+= sum+=10 This is same as sum=sum+10
-= sum-=10 sum = sum-10
Compound assignment operators *= sum*=10 sum = sum*10
Or /+ sum/=10 sum = sum/10
Shorthand assignment operators %= sum%=10 sum = sum%10
&=sum&=10 sum = sum&10
^= sum^=10 sum = sum^10

E.g.
var=5 //5 is assigned to var
a=c; //value of c is assigned to a

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6. Miscellaneous Operators
Other operators available in C are
a. Function Call Operator(i.e. ( ) )
b. Array subscript Operator(i.e [ ])
c. Member Select Operator
i. Direct member access operator (i.e. . dot operator)
ii. Indirect member access operator (i.e. -> arrow operator)
d. Conditional operator (?:)
e. Comma operator (,)
f. sizeof operator
g. Address-of operator (&)
a) Comma operator
 It is used to join multiple expressions together.
 E.g.
int i , j;
i=(j=10,j+20);
In the above declaration, right hand side consists of two expressions separated by
comma. The first expression is j=10 and second is j+20. These expressions are evaluated from
left to right. ie first the value 10 is assigned to j and then expression j+20 is evaluated so the
final value of i will be 30.
b) sizeof Operator
 The sizeof operator returns the size of its operand in bytes.
 Example : size of (char) will give us 1.
 sizeof(a), where a is integer, will return 2.

c) Conditional Operator
 It is the only ternary operator available in C.
 Conditional operator takes three operands and consists of two symbols ? and : .
 Conditional operators are used for decision making in C.

Syntax :
(Condition? true_value: false_value);
For example:
c=(c>0)?10:-10;
If c is greater than 0, value of c will be 10 but, if c is less than 0, value of c will
be -10.
d) Address-of Operator
It is used to find the address of a data object.
Syntax
&operand
E.g.
&a will give address of a.

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1.7 Managing Input and Output operations

The I/O functions are classified into two types:
 Formatted Functions
 Unformatted functions

Input and Output functions

Formatted Functions Unformatted Functions

printf() getch()
getche()
scanf() getchar()
gets()
putch()
putchar()
puts()
1.7.1 Unformatted Functions:
They are used when I/P & O/P is not required in a specific format.
C has 3 types I/O functions.
a) Character I/O
b) String I/O
c) File I/O
a) Character I/O:
1. getchar() This function reads a single character data from the standard input.
(E.g. Keyboard)
Syntax :
variable_name=getchar();

eg:
char c;
c=getchar();

2. putchar() This function prints one character on the screen at a time.

Syntax :
putchar(variable name);
eg
char c=‘C’;
putchar(c);
Example Program
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
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char ch;
ch = getchar();
putchar(ch);
}
Output:
A
A
3. getch() and getche() : getch() accepts only a single character from keyboard. The character
entered through getch() is not displayed in the screen (monitor).
Syntax
variable_name = getch();

Like getch(), getche() also accepts only single character, but getche() displays the entered
character in the screen.
Syntax
variable_name = getche();
4 putch(): putch displays any alphanumeric characters to the standard output device. It
displays only one character at a time.
Syntax
putch(variable_name);
b) String I/O
1.gets() – This function is used for accepting any string through stdin (keyboard) until enter
key is pressed.
Syntax
gets(variable_name);

2. puts() – This function prints the string or character array.

Syntax
puts(variable_name);
3. cgets()- This function reads string from the console.
Syntax
cgets(char *st);

It requires character pointer as an argument.

4. cputs()- This function displays string on the console.
Syntax
cputs(char *st);

Example Program
void main()
{
char ch[30];
clrscr();
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printf(“Enter the String : “);

gets(ch);
puts(“\n Entered String : %s”,ch);
puts(ch);
}
Output:
Enter the String : WELCOME
Entered String : WELCOME

1.7.2 Formatted Input & Output Functions

When I/P & O/P is required in a specified format then the standard library functions scanf( ) &
printf( ) are used.
O/P function printf( )
The printf( ) function is used to print data of different data types on the console in a specified
format.
General Form

printf(“Control String”, var1, var2, …);

Control String may contain

1. Ordinary characters
2. Conversion Specifier Field (or) Format Specifiers
They denoted by %, contains conversion codes like %c, %d etc.
and the optional modifiers width, flag, precision, size.
Conversion Codes
Data type Conversion Symbol
char %c
int %d
float %f
Unsigned octal %o
Pointer %p

Width Modifier: It specifies the total number of characters used to display the value.
Precision: It specifies the number of characters used after the decimal point.
E.g: printf(“ Number=%7.2\n”,5.4321);
Width=7
Precesion=2
Output: Number = 5.43(3 spaces added in front of 5)
Flag: It is used to specify one or more print modifications.
Flag Meaning
- Left justify the display
+ Display +Ve or –Ve sign of value
Space Display space if there is no sign
0 Pad with leading 0s

E.g: printf(“Number=%07.2\n”,5.4321)
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Output: Number=0005.43

Size: Size modifiers used in printf are,

Size modifier Converts To
l Long int
h Short int
L Long double
%ld means long int variable
%hd means short int variable
3. Control Codes
They are also known as Escape Sequences.
E.g:
Control Code Meaning
\n New line
\t Horizontal Tab
\b Back space
Input Function scanf( )
It is used to get data in a specified format. It can accept data of different data types.
Syntax
scanf(“Control String”, var1address, var2address, …);

Format String or Control String is enclosed in quotation marks. It may contain

1. White Space
2. Ordinary characters
3. Conversion Specifier Field
It is denoted by % followed by conversion code and other optional modifiers E.g:
width, size.
Format Specifiers for scanf( )

Data type Conversion Symbol

char %c
int %d
float %f
string %s
E.g Program:

#include <stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int num1, num2, sum;
printf("Enter two integers: ");
scanf("%d %d",&num1,&num2);
sum=num1+num2;
printf("Sum: %d",sum);
}
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Output
Enter two integers: 12 11
Sum: 23

2.8 Decision Making and Branching

Decision making statements in a programming language help the programmer to transfer

the control from one part to other part of the program.
Flow of control: The order in which the program statements are executed is known as flow
of control. By default, statements in a c program are executed in a sequential order.
The default flow of control can be altered by using flow control statements. These
statements are of two types.
Selection-Conditional Branching

1.Branching

Jump-unconditional Branching
2.Iteration statements
Branching statements
Branching statements are used to transfer program control from one point to another.
2 types
a) Conditional Branching:- Program control is transferred from one point to another
based on the result of some condition
Eg) if, if-else, switch
b) Unconditional Branching:- Pprogram control is transferred from one point to
another without checking any condition
Eg) goto, break, continue, return
a) Conditional Branching : Selection statements
Statements available in c are
 The if statement
 The if-else statement
 The switch case statement
(i)The if statement
C uses the keyword if to execute a statement or set of statements when the logical
condition is true.
Syntax:
if (test expression)
Statement; Test F
expr
essio
T n

Statement

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 If test expression evaluates to true, the corresponding statement is executed.

 If the test expression evaluates to false, control goes to next executable
statement.
 The statement can be single statement or a block of statements. Block of
statements must be enclosed in curly braces.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(“enter the number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n>0)
printf(“the number is positive”);
getch();
}
Output:
enter the number:50
the number is positive

(ii)The if-else statement

Syntax: Tes
t
if (test expression) ex
Statement T; T pre F
else ssi
Statement F; on
Stateme Stateme
ntT ntF

 If the test expression is true, statementT will be executed.

 If the test expression is false, statementF will be executed.
 StatementT and StatementF can be a single or block of statements.

Example:1 Program to check whether a given number is even or odd.

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n,r;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
r=n%2;
if(r==0)

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printf(“The number is even”);

else
printf(“The number is odd”);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a number:15
The number is odd

Example:2 To check whether the two given numbers are equal

void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter a and b:” );
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
if(a==b)
printf(“a and b are equal”);
else
printf(“a and b are not equal”);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a and b: 2 4
a and b are not equal
(iii) Nested if statement
If the body the if statement contains another if statement, then it is known as nested if
statement
Syntax:
if (test expression) if (test expression)
if (test expression) (Or) {
statement;
if (test expression)
….
statement;
}

This nesting can be done up to any level.

Syntax:

if (test expression1)
{
…..
if (test expression2)
{
….
if (test expression3)
{
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This is known as if ladder

iv) Nested if-else statement

Here, the if body or else body of an if-else statement contains another if statement or if
else statement
Syntax:
if (condition)
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
}
else
{
statement 3;
if (condition)
statementnest;
statement 4;
}
Example:
Program for finding greatest of 3 numbers
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
printf(“Enter three numbers\n”);
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b)
{
if(a>c)
{
printf(“a is greatest”);
}

}
else
{
if(b>c)
{
printf(“b is greatest”);
}
else
{

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printf(“C is greatest”);
}
}
}
Output
Enter three numbers 2 4 6
C is greatest

v) Switch statement
 It is a multi way branch statement.
 It provides an easy & organized way to select among multiple operations depending
upon some condition.
Execution
1. Switch expression is evaluated.
2. The result is compared with all the cases.
3. If one of the cases is matched, then all the statements after that matched case gets
executed.
4. If no match occurs, then all the statements after the default statement get executed.
 Switch ,case, break and default are keywords
 Break statement is used to exit from the current case structure
Flowchart
switch(expression)

case: break
statement
constant 0

case : break
constant statement
1

default
statement break

End of switch

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Syntax
switch(expression)
{
case value 1:
program statement;
program statement;
……
break;
case value 2:
program statement;
Program statement;
……
break;
…
case value n:
program statement;
program statement;
……
break;
default:
program statement;
program statement;
}

Example1
void main()
{
char ch;
printf(“Enter a character\n”);
scanf(“%c”,&ch);
switch(ch)
{
case ‘A’:
printf(“you entered an A\n”);
break;
case ‘B’:
printf(“you entered a B\n”);
break;
default:
printf(“Illegal entry”);
break;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter a character
A

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You entered an A

Example2
void main()
{
int n;
printf(“Enter a number\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
switch(n%2)
{
case 0:printf(“EVEN\n”);
break;
case 1:printf(“ODD\n”);
break;
}
getch();
}

Output:
Enter a number
5
ODD

b)Unconditional branching statements

i)The goto Statement
This statement does not require any condition. Here program control is transferred to
another part of the program without testing any condition.
Syntax:
goto label;

 label is the position where the control is to be transferred.

Example:
void main()
{
printf(“www.”);
goto x;
y:
printf(“mail”);
goto z;
x:
printf(“yahoo”);
goto y;

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z:
printf(“.com”);
getch();
}
Output : www.yahoomail.com
b)break statement
 A break statement can appear only inside a body of , a switch or a loop
 A break statement terminates the execution of the nearest enclosing loop or
switch.
Syntax
break;
break;

Example:1
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int c=1;
while(c<=5)
{
if (c==3)
break;
printf(“\t %d”,c);
c++;
}
}

Output : 1 2

Example :2
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
if (i==5)
break;
printf(“ %d”,i);
}
}
Output :1 2 3 4
iii) continue statement
 A continue statement can appear only inside a loop.
 A continue statement terminates the current iteration of the nearest enclosing
loop.
Syntax:

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continue;

Example :1
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int c=1;
while(c<=5)
{
if (c==3)
continue;
printf(“\t %d”,c);
c++;
}
}
Output : 1 2 4 5
Example :2
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
if (i==5)
continue;
printf(“ %d”,i);
}
}

Output :1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10

iv) return statement:

A return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns the control to the
calling function.
Syntax:

return;
(or)

return expression;

2.12 Iteration Statements (Looping Statements)

Iteration is a process of repeating the same set of statements again and again until the condition
holds true.
Iteration or Looping statements in C are:
1. for
2. while
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3. do while
Loops are classified as
 Counter controlled loops
 Sentinel controlled loops
Counter controlled loops
 The number of iterations is known in advance. They use a control variable called loop
counter.
 Also called as definite repetitions loop.
 E.g: for
Sentinel controlled loops
 The number of iterations is not known in advance. The execution or termination of the loop
depends upon a special value called sentinel value.
 Also called as indefinite repetitions loop.
 E.g: while
1. for loop
It is the most popular looping statement.
Syntax:
for(initialization;condition2;incrementing/updating)
{
Statements;
}

There are three sections in for loop.

a. Initialization section – gives initial value to the loop counter.
b. Condition section – tests the value of loop counter to decide whether to
execute the
loop or not.
c. Manipulation section - manipulates the value of loop counter.

Execution of for loop

1. Initialization section is executed only once.
2. Condition is evaluated
a. If it is true, loop body is executed.
b. If it is false, loop is terminated
3. After the execution of loop, the manipulation expression is evaluated.
4. Steps 2 & 3 are repeated until step 2 condition becomes false.

Ex 1: Write a program to print 10 numbers using for loop

void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
printf(“%d”,i);
}
getch();
}
Output:

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ex2: To find the sum of n natural number. 1+2+3…+n
void main()
{
int n, i, sum=0;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the value for n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
printf(“Sum=%d”, sum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the value for n
4
sum=10

2. while statement
 They are also known as Entry controlled loops because here the condition is checked before the
execution of loop body.
Syntax:
while (expression)
{
statements;
}

Execution of while loop

a. Condition in while is evaluated
i. If it is true, body of the loop is executed.
ii. If it is false, loop is terminated
b. After executing the while body, program control returns back to while header.
c. Steps a & b are repeated until condition evaluates to false.
d. Always remember to initialize the loop counter before while and manipulate loop counter
inside the body of while.

Ex 1: Write a program to print 10 numbers using while loop

void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while (num<=10)
{
printf (“%d”,i);
i=i+1;
}
getch();
}

38
D. Nagaraj, AP/CSE

Downloaded by Shantha Balaji (shanthabalaji2013@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|51092703

CS3251 – PROGRAMMING IN C
Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ex2: To find the sum of n natural number. 1+2+3…+n

void main()
{
int n, i=1, sum=0;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the value for n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
sum=sum+i;
i=i+1;
}
printf(“Sum=%d”, sum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the value for n
4
Sum=10

3. do while statement
 They are also known as Exit controlled loops because here the condition is checked after the
execution of loop body.
Syntax:
do
{
statements;
}
while(expression);

Execution of do while loop

a. Body of do-while is executed.
b. After execution of do-while body, do-while condition is evaluated
i. If it is true, loop body is executed again and step b is repeated.
ii. If it is false, loop is terminated

 The body of do-while is executed once, even when the condition is initially false.

Ex1: Write a program to print 10 numbers using do while loop

void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
do
{
printf (“%d”,i);

39
D. Nagaraj, AP/CSE

Downloaded by Shantha Balaji (shanthabalaji2013@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|51092703

CS3251 – PROGRAMMING IN C
Unit 1 Basics of C Programming

i=i+1;
} while (num<=10);
getch();
}
Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ex2: To find the sum of n natural number. 1+2+3…+n

void main()
{
int n, i=1, sum=0;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the value for n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
do
{
sum=sum+i;
i=i+1;
} while(i<=n);
printf(“Sum=%d”, sum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the value for n
4
Sum=10

Three main ingredients of counter-controlled looping

1. Initialization of loop counter
2. Condition to decide whether to execute loop or not.
3. Expression that manipulates the value of loop.

Nested loops
 If the body of a loop contains another iteration statement, then we say that the loops are nested.
 Loops within a loop are known as nested loop.

Syntax

while(condition)
{
while(condition)
{
Statements;
}
Statements;
}

40
D. Nagaraj, AP/CSE

Downloaded by Shantha Balaji (shanthabalaji2013@gmail.com)