Introduction To Programming 1

A Program:
A set of instructions to be executed by a computer to perform any particular
task is called as a program. A number of program compiled together to carry
out any big task to be executed by a computer is now termed as a software.

A program or instructions are written in a language which is well understood

by computer. Machine Language or Binary Codes are most easy to
understand by a computer system. So the first language used to write
program was machine language. Machine language has some short comings
as given below.

1- Very difficult to write programs because binary codes are not easy to
remember.
2- A Program made on Machine Language is Machine Dependent and can not
be run on other machines.

As every program is specially made for particular type of machine and one
program made on a particular machine can not be run on any other machine
because different machines have different electronic circuitry and sets of
registers. So, need for a new type of language was felt and a new version of
programming language came into existence called as “Assembly Language”.

Assembly Language:
The first evolution in programming language was the development of
“Assembly Language”. In assembly language; mnemonics are used to
represent operation codes and string of characters to represent the address.
Hence machine language coding has one to one correspondence coding in
assembly language.

As it is clear that mnemonics and each address replaces the machine code
one to one, therefore a program in assembly language is also for a particular
machine and hence it is machine dependent. Also, since a computer
understands only binary coding so assembly language program has to be
converted into machine code. This procedure is done through a special
program which acts as a translator to translate assembly language program
into machine language. The translator is termed as “Assembler”.

Now after the action of assembler we have two end of a program in assembly
language.
Source Program
Object Program
Source program is the instructions written in assembly language and object
program is the converted program in machine language. Processor gets the
coding in machine language and then it processes the program to obtain the
final output.
Assembly language also has shortcomings like machine language:
Introduction To Programming 2

All the mnemonics and address are to be remembered which is a tedious task
to do.
Program is still machine dependant.

Classification of Programming Languages:

Low Level Languages
Machine Language
Assembly Language
High Level Language
FORTRAN
PASCAL
COBOL
BASIC etc.

High Level Language:

High Level Languages are type of programming language which uses English
as a language to write programs in its own grammar called as “Syntax”.
Though in programming every word or notations has its specific meaning
which may appear inappropriate to us as far as English grammar is
concerned but meaning of these words are well defined for respective
computer languages. As we have assembler to convert assembly language
codes into machine codes, high level language too has a special program
called “Compiler” to convert the coding into a code which is easily understood
by processor for execution. A compiler firstly compiles all the programs at a
time and checks for errors. It displays the errors for debugging.
The main difference between a compiler and assembler is that compiler
compiles and checks for errors the entire program at a time whereas an
assembler performs this task line by line instruction of the program. It moves
to next line only when the first line is free from errors.

Middle Level Language:

As we know that program made on machine language are machine
dependant and very difficult to write whereas programs made on high level
languages take more time to execute. Hence a new language was developed
which eliminated the shortcomings of high level languages and comprised the
benefits of low level language. This language was termed as middle level
language. C and C++ are the examples of Middle Level Language.

A computer Program:
A computer program is a set of step by step procedural instruction to be
given to computer to execute any task on computer. Let‟s take a common
example to execute a task. Suppose we have to prepare tea, then the step
by step procedure to make tea would be as under:
Step 1: Collect utensils, tea filter, milk, water, tea leaves, sugar and stove.
Step 2: Ignite the stove.
Step 3: Put the utensil on the stove.
Step 4: Pour requisite quantity of water and milk into the utensil.
Step 5: Add appropriate quantity of sugar and tea leaves.
Introduction To Programming 3

Step 6: Boil the mixture for 5 minutes.

Step 7: Filter and pour the prepared tea into cups.
Step 8: Serve the tea.

Similarly while programming we have to provide step by step procedural

instructions to carry out the operations while taking the syntax and hierarchy
of steps in consideration.
A sample program to add two digits and to obtain its sum in BASIC Language
is given as under:

LET A= 10
LET B= 30
C= A+B
PRINT C
END
RUN

BASIC Language:
(Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instructions Code)
BASIC language comes into the category of High Level Language which can
be used for simplex, complex and graphical computer programming. It‟s easy
to write and compile. Errors finding and rectification of the same is also easy.
A program made on BASIC occupies comparatively less space in the memory
and they take less time for execution.

Its text editor gives us a CUI interface; however mouse pointer gives us user
friendly environment while writing a program.
Before using BASIC as programming language one must have to be familiar
with the components of the language. A programming language consists of
some components such as variable, constant etc, reserve keyword, reserved
symbols etc.

Reserve Keywords are certain words which have their specific meaning and
are used in programming as per the syntax. If these words are used in
program at any place other than the appropriate place, the possibility of
errors are likely.

Similarly Reserve Symbols are symbols which are used in programming with
their own specific meaning. Reserve symbols are symbols which are used in a
program for logical or arithmetical operations. Such as:
(, ), “, “, +, -, %, *, /, <, > etc.
Some Reserve Keywords and Symbols:

Variables:
Variables are those values which can be changed during the execution of the
program. Variable are also known as identifiers as they identify any location
in memory. In fact a variable acts as a container in memory where different
valued data can be stored during execution of the program.
Introduction To Programming 4

Constant:
Constant are those values which can not be changed during the execution of
the program.
Note:- Though variable are those values which can not be changed during
execution , however we can provide a condition for a variable for never to go
beyond its limit and this action of applying the condition is called as
initialization.

Type of variables:
In BASIC programming mainly there are two types of variables:
Numeric Variables
String Variables
Numeric variables have no dollar sign and can store only numeric values.
e.g. A, B, A1, A_B etc.
String variables have dollar sign and can store alphabets and alphanumeric
values.
e.g. A$, A_B$, XY$, A2$, etc.

Arrays: It is a subscripted variable which represents memory location where

memory is divided into many cells and each cell is capable of storing one
constant.

Some important commands (Keywords) of BASIC:

REM: Specifies a non- executable remark statement.

CLS: Clear the screen.
PRINT: Display a message on the screen.
LPINT: Print on Paper.
INPUT: Gets information from the user and stores it in a variable.
END: End the Program.
GOTO: Sends the control to another point in the program. It
could take the control back or jump ahead.
LOCATE: Specifies the Position / Location of display.
FOR-NEXT: It used to make the computer repeat commands several
times. A delay loop is an empty FOR-NEXT loop with no
instruction in it.
IF-THEN-ELSE: To check a condition and take suitable action.
RND: It is used to generate random number. REN generates a
random number between 0 and 1. To generate a random
number between 1 and 100, multiply by 100, i.e.
RND*100. To generate integral random numbers, say 1
and 100 the command is INT(RND*100).
LEN: Gives the number of characters in a string.
INKEYS$: This command accepts a character from the keyboard but
unlike the INPUT command does not wait for the enter
key to the pressed.
Introduction To Programming 5

SCREENn, CIRCLE, PSET, LINE and PAINT are all graphic commands,

Example1
To input the name of five fruits, and then display them on the screen at the
same time by using any array:

REM “Display name of fruits”

DIM Fruit$(5)
FOR count = 1 to 5
INPUT “Type the name of seasonal fruit” Fruit$(count)
NEXT count
CLS
FOR n = 1 to 5
LOCATEn+2.20
PRINT Fruit$(n)
NEXT n
END

The second statement contains a DIM command. The DIM command informs
the computer how much memory to reserve for an array. Here DIM fruit$(5)
implies that there are five elements in this array. If we want to input names
of say seven fruits, what will the DIM command be?
In the FOR-NEXT loop we have used „count‟ as a variable. Fruit$(count) will
mean Fruit$(1), Fruit$(2),…, Fruit$(5) depending on the value of count
variable.
For printing we have used another variable „n‟.n+2 in the LOCATE command
is simply to space out the printing of names of fruits on the monitor. We
could, however, have used the same variable for both the FOR-NEXT loops.

Example2
Write a program to randomly generate integer 1 or 2, 50 times, and see how
many times we get number „1‟ and „2‟.

The program for this is as follows:

Label for the program
Clear the screen
Initialize random number generation
Define the array size
Generate random numbers
And store in num(1) and in num(2)
Display count
End the program

REM “Find the number of 1s and 2s”

CLS
RANDOMIZE TIMER
DIM Num(2)
Introduction To Programming 6

FOR count 1 TO 50
LET n = INT(RND*2+1)
LET num(n) = num(n)+1
NEXT count
PRINT “Number of 1s were”,num(1)
PRINT “Number of 2s were”,num(2)
END

The array in the above program contains only two elements – num(1) and
num(2).
Note: We have used a new command RANDOMIZE TIMER in the above
program. Let us understand the significance of the command. You know that
the RND command generates random numbers. If you give the RND
command to generate a sequence of number, say 50 times, you will get the
same sequence of random numbers. A way out is o initialize the random
number generation y giving the RANDOMIZE TIMER command, after
generating each sequence. RANDOMIZE TIMER resets everything, so that you
will not get the same sequence of random numbers every time you give the
RND command.

Example3

Write a program to calculate the total score of student in five subjects, and
to print „Good performances‟ if the percentage exceeds 90.

REM “Calculate total score”

CLSe
DIM score(5), Subject$(5)
Subject$(1) = “English”
Subject$(2) = “Mathematics’”
Subject$(3) = “Hindi”
Subject$(4) = “Science”
Subject$(5) = “Social Studies”
INPUT “Name of students”,Name$
FOR n = 1 to 5
PRINT Subject$(n);“:”;
INPUT “Enter marks out of 100”,score(n)
Total = total + score(n)
NEXT n
PRINT Name$; “Has score a total of”,total,“marks.”
IF total/5>90 THEN PRINT “Good Performance”
END

The ON-GOSUB command is a variation of the GOSUB command. This

command allows the program control to go to a certain label, depending on
the value that is input in the concerned variable.
Introduction To Programming 7

The NO-GOSUB command works in exactly the same way. The only different
is that the RETURN command in the subroutine returns the control back to
the main program automatically, and there is no need to give the „GOTO
main‟ command.

The given program does the following.

Display the main menu which consist of the categories of foods available
(Beverages, Snacks, Indian Food Vegetarian, Indian Food Non-Vegetarian).
Depending on the customer‟s choice of category (which gets saved in the
variable „choice‟), the program control is transferred to one of the
subroutines by the ON-GOTO command.
In the subroutine, the INKEY$ command makes the computer wait till a key
is pressed by the customer. Ones a key is pressed, the control goes to the
mane menu.
Given below is the main menu program and two subroutines and snakes.

REM “Menu program”

Main: CLS
PRINT “1. Beverages”
PRINT “2. Snakes”
PRINT “3. Indian Food Vegetarian”
PRINT “4. Indian Food Non-Vegetarian”
PRINT “7. Quit”
INPUT “Type the number of your choice”, choice
ON choice GOTO Beverages, Snakes, Indian Food Vegetarian, Indian
Food Non-Vegetarian
Beverages: CLS
PRINT “Tea Rs. 5”
PRINT “Coffee Rs. 10”
PRINT “Juice Rs. 15”
PRINT “Cola Rs. 12”
PRINT “Press any key to go back to main menu”
Waiting: A$=INKEY$
IF A$ = “ “THEN GOTO waiting ELSE GOTO main
Snacks: CLS
PRINT “Veg cutlet Rs. 12”
PRINT “Egg cutlet Rs. 20”
PRINT “Samosa Rs. 10”
PRINT “Sandwich Rs. 15”
PRINT “Press any key to go back to main menu”
Waiting: A$=INKEY$
IF A$ = “ “THEN GOTO waiting ELSE GOTO main
Quit: CLS
END
Introduction To Programming 8
Main Menu
1. Beverages
2. Snakes
3. Indian Food Vegetarian
4. Indian Food Non-Vegetarian
5. Quit

Beverages Snakes
Tea Rs. 5 Veg cutlet Rs. 12
Coffee Rs. 10 Egg cutlet Rs. 20
Juice Rs. 15 Samosa Rs. 10
Cola Rs. 12 Sandwich Rs. 15

Graphics Command:
The graphics commands are SCREEN n, PSET, LINE, CIRCLE, and PAINT.
SCREEN  A graphics statement that sets the specifications for the display
screen and n: is the mode of the screen. Values of n varies from 0-4 and 7-
13. eg.
Screen 12
 640X480 Graphics
 80X30 or 80X80 text format.
PSET  A graphics statement that draws a point on the screen.
Syntax : PSET (X1,Y1) [,Color]
LINE  A graphics statement that draws a Line or Box on the screen.
Syntax : LINE (x1,y1)-(x2,y2)[[,Color],[B[F]]]
CIRCLE  A graphics statement that draws a Circle on the screen.
Syntax: CIRCLE(x1,y1),radius[[,color][,[starta][,[enda][,aspect]]]]
Aspect: The ratio of y radius to the x radius
PAINT  A graphics statement that fills an area with the color.
Syntax: PAINT(x1,y1)[,[paint][,[bordercolor][,[backgroundcolor]]]

Program:
SCREEN 12
PAINT (10,10),3,7
PSET (90,100),10
LINE(50,50)-(200,200),5
LINE(100,100)-(200,200),5,B
LINE(150,150)-(250,250),5,BF
CIRCLE(200,200),200,9,,,1.5
CIRCLE(200,200),200,4,22/14,22/7
END
CIRCLE (XI,Y1),r
Draw a circle with center at (X1, Y1) and radius r. The command
CIRCLE(X1,Y1),r,c
Draw the same circle in the colour specified by the number „c‟.
Drawing an Arc:
Introduction To Programming 9

Till now have been drawing only complete circles. A position of a circle is an
arc. To draw an arc, the starting and ending angles of the arc have to be
given, however, these are not given in degrees, but in measure called radius.
The relation ship between degrees and radius as follows:
Thus 90 = 3.14/2 radians = 1.57radians, and 360=2x3.14 radians =6.28
So the general formula for converting from degrees to radians is to multiply
degrees by 3.14/180. Look at this circle command.

CIRCLE(100,200),50,4,0,1.57
This draws an arc with center at (100, 200), radius = 50, in red colour
(4), with starting angle of 0` and ending angle of 90`.

Making an Ellipse:
An Ellipse is actually a circle stretched horizontally or
vertically. The CIRCLE command can be used to draw
an ellipse by altering the ratio between the y-axis and
X-axis (known as the aspect ratio) as 0.5, the Circle stretched horizontally
horizontally to form an ellipse (See Figure) to make an ellipse

This ratio can be specified after the ending angle, as in the command below.
Since we are drawing a circle and not an arc, the angles have not been
given. However commas have to be inserted for the missing angles.

Circle(100,200),20,3,,,0.5
This should give you a horizontally stretched circle. Now try the following
with the aspect ratio being greater then 1.

Circle(100,200),20,3,,,1.5
This should give you a vertically stretched circle. (See Figure)

Three-Dimensional effects:
The Circle Command can be used cleverly to create three dimensional (3-D)
graphics. Type and execute the following program and see the result.

REM “3D Effect”

CLS
SCREEN 12
FOR Y=300 to 240 STEP-4
CIRCLE(240,y), y-200,3,,,0.5
NEXT y
END
Introduction To Programming 10

Some Simple QBASIC Programs:

1-Program for Common Calculation, to input two digits and to get their Sum,
Subtraction, Multiplication & Division.

Code Window

Run Time Window

Introduction To Programming 11

2- Program to obtain simple interest while entering “Principle amount”, Rate

of interest” and Number of years”.

Code Window

Run Time Window

Introduction To Programming 12

3- Program to enter “Year” and to obtain whether this year is Leap Year or
not?

Code Window

Run Time Window

Introduction To Programming 13

4- Program to enter any string and obtain any message including that string.

Code Window

Run Time Window