History of Java:

• Java is a programming language and a platform. Java is a high level, robust, object-
oriented and secure programming language.

• Java was developed by Sun Microsystems(which is now the subsidiary of Oracle) in the
year 1995. James Gosling is known as the father of Java. Before Java, its name was Oak. Since
Oak was already a registered company, so James Gosling and his team changed the Oak name
to Java.

Platform: Any hardware or software environment in which a program runs, is known as a

platform. Since Java has a runtime environment (JRE) and API, it is called a platform.

JVM: Java Virtual Machine, or JVM, loads, verifies and executes Java bytecode. It is known as
the interpreter or the core of Java programming language because it executes Java
programming.

Application:
1. Desktop Applications such as acrobat reader, media player, antivirus, etc.

2. Web Applications such as irctc.co.in, javatpoint.com, etc.

3. Enterprise Applications such as banking applications.

4. Mobile

5. Embedded System

6. Smart Card

7. Robotics

8. Games, etc.
 Features of Java:
1. Simple

2. Object-Oriented

3. Portable

4. Platform independent

5. Secured

6. Robust

7. Architecture neutral

8. Interpreted

9. High Performance

10.Multithreaded

11.Distributed

12.Dynamic

Simple:

 Java is designed to be easy to learn. If you understand the basic concept of OOP Java, it
would be easy to master.

Object Oriented:
 In Java, everything is an Object. Java can be easily extended since it is based on the
Object model.

Portable:

 Being architecture-neutral and having no implementation dependent aspects of the

specification makes Java portable. Compiler in Java is written in ANSI C with a clean
portability boundary, which is a POSIX subset.
Platform Independent:
 Unlike many other programming languages including C and C++, when Java is compiled,
it is not compiled into platform specific machine, rather into platform independent byte
code. This byte code is distributed over the web and interpreted by the Virtual Machine
(JVM) on whichever platform it is being run on.

Secure:

 With Java's secure feature it enables to develop virus-free, tamper-free systems.

Authentication techniques are based on public-key encryption.

Robust:

 Java makes an effort to eliminate error prone situations by emphasizing mainly on

compile time error checking and runtime checking.

Architecture- neutral:

 Java compiler generates an architecture-neutral object file format, which makes the
compiled code executable on many processors, with the presence of Java runtime
system.

Interpreted:

 Java byte code is translated on the fly to native machine instructions and is not stored
anywhere. The development process is more rapid and analytical since the linking is an
incremental and light-weight process.

High Performance:

 With the use of Just-In-Time compilers, Java enables high performance.

Multithreaded:

 With Java's multithreaded feature it is possible to write programs that can perform
many tasks simultaneously. This design feature allows the developers to construct
interactive applications that can run smoothly.

Distributed:
 Java is designed for the distributed environment of the internet.

Dynamic:
 Java is considered to be more dynamic than C or C++ since it is designed to adapt to an
evolving environment. Java programs can carry extensive amount of run-time
information that can be used to verify and resolve accesses to objects on run-time.

Java sample program:

Example Program:
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Hello World");

O/P: Hello World

public class PrintArgs {

public static void main(String[] args) {

for(String arg : args) {

System.out.println(arg);
 }

To compile: javac Simple.java

To execute: java Simple

Parameters used in First Java Program:

o class keyword is used to declare a class in java. Every line of code that
runs in Java must be inside a class. In our example, we named the
class Main. A class should always start with an uppercase first
letter.

o Note: Java is case-sensitive: "MyClass" and "myclass" has different

meaning.
o public keyword is an access modifier which represents visibility. It means it

is visible to all.

o static is a keyword. If we declare any method as static, it is known as the

static method. The core advantage of the static method is that there is no
need to create an object to invoke the static method. The main method is
executed by the JVM, so it doesn't require to create an object to invoke the
main method. So it saves memory.

o void is the return type of the method. It means it doesn't return any value.

o main represents the starting point of the program.

o String[] args is used for command line argument. We will learn it later.
o System.out.println() Inside the main() method, we can use
the println() method to print a line of text to the screen:

public static void main(String[] args) {

 System.out.println("Hello World");

Note: The curly braces {} marks the beginning and the end of a block of code. Note: Each code statement
must end with a semicolon.

Java Comments:
Comments can be used to explain Java code, and to make it more readable. It can also
be used to prevent execution when testing alternative code.

Single-line Comments:
Single-line comments start with two forward slashes ( //).

Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by Java (will not be executed).

This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:

Example:
// This is a comment

System.out.println("Hello World");

This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:

Example:
System.out.println("Hello World"); // This is a comment

Java Multi-line Comments:

o Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.
 o Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.
o This example uses a multi-line comment (a comment block) to
explain the code:

Example:
/* The code below will print the words Hello World

to the screen, and it is amazing */

System.out.println("Hello World");

Java Variables:
 Variables are containers for storing data values.

In Java, there are different types of variables, for example:

 String - stores text, such as "Hello". String values are surrounded by double
quotes
 int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
 float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99
 char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by
single quotes
 boolean - stores values with two states: true or false

Declaring (Creating) Variables:

To create a variable, you must specify the type and assign it a value:

Syntax:
type variableName = value;
Where type is one of Java's types (such as int or String), and variableName is the
name of the variable (such as x or name). The equal sign is used to assign values to
the variable.

To create a variable that should store text, look at the following example:

Example:
Create a variable called name of type String and assign it the value "John":

String name = "John";

System.out.println(name);

To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following example:

Example:
Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15:

int myNum = 15;

System.out.println(myNum);

You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the value later:

Example:
int myNum;

myNum = 15;

System.out.println(myNum);

Note that if you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous
value:

Example:
Change the value of myNum from 15 to 20:

int myNum = 15;

myNum = 20; // myNum is now 20

System.out.println(myNum);

Final Variables:
However, you can add the final keyword if you don't want others (or yourself) to
overwrite existing values (this will declare the variable as "final" or "constant", which
means unchangeable and read-only):

Example:
final int myNum = 15;

myNum = 20; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final

variable

Other Types:
A demonstration of how to declare variables of other types:

Example:
int myNum = 5;

float myFloatNum = 5.99f;

char myLetter = 'D';

boolean myBool = true;

String myText = "Hello";

Display Variables:
The println() method is often used to disp lay variables.
To combine both text and a variable, use the + character:

Example:
String name = "John";

System.out.println("Hello " + name);

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:

Example:
String firstName = "John ";

String lastName = "Doe";

String fullName = firstName + lastName;

System.out.println(fullName);

For numeric values, the + character works as a mathematical operator (notice that we
use int (integer) variables here):

Example:
int x = 5;

int y = 6;

System.out.println(x + y); // Print the value of x + y

From the example above, you can expect:

 x stores the value 5

 y stores the value 6
 Then we use the println() method to display the value of x + y, which is 11

Declare Many Variables

To declare more than one variable of the same type, use a comma-separated list:

Example:
int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
System.out.println(x + y + z);//(61)

Java Identifiers
All Java variables must be identified with unique names.

These unique names are called identifiers.

Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names (age, sum,
totalVolume).

Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create understandable

and maintainable code:

Example:
// Good

int minutesPerHour = 60;

// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

int m = 60;

The general rules for naming variables are:

 Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs

 Names must begin with a letter
 Names should start with a lowercase letter and it cannot contain whitespace
 Names can also begin with $ and _ (but we will not use it in this tutorial)
 Names are case sensitive ("myVar" and "myvar" are different variables)
 Reserved words (like Java keywords, such as int or boolean) cannot be used as
names

Data types:
Data types specify the different sizes and values that can be stored in the
variable. There are two types of data types in Java: Example
int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)

float myFloatNum = 5.99f; // Floating point number

char myLetter = 'D'; // Character

boolean myBool = true; // Boolean

String myText = "Hello"; // String

1. Primitive data types: The primitive data types include boolean, char, byte,
short, int, long, float and double.

2. Non-primitive data types: The non-primitive data types include Classes,

String and Arrays.

Java Type Casting:

Type casting is when you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type.

In Java, there are two types of casting:

 Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type

size
byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double

 Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type

double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte

Widening Casting:
Widening casting is done automatically when passing a smaller size type to a larger size
type:
Example:
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int myInt = 9;

double myDouble = myInt; // Automatic casting: int to double

System.out.println(myInt); // Outputs 9

System.out.println(myDouble); // Outputs 9.0

Narrowing Casting:
Narrowing casting must be done manually by placing the type in parentheses in front of
the value:

Example:
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

double myDouble = 9.78d;

int myInt = (int) myDouble; // Manual casting: double to int

System.out.println(myDouble); // Outputs 9.78

System.out.println(myInt); // Outputs 9

Another example:
 Narrowing (Typecasting):
1. class Simple{

2. public static void main(String[] args){

3. float f=10.5f;

4. //int a=f;//Compile time error

5. int a=(int)f;

6. System.out.println(f);

7. System.out.println(a);

8. }}

Operators in java
Operator in java is a symbol that is used to perform operations. For
example: +, -, *, / etc.

There are many types of operators in java which are given below:

 Arithmetic operators
 Unary operator
 Assignment operators
 Relational operator
 Ternary operator
 Shift operator
 Logical operators

A list of all assignment operators:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5
 += x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Java Arithmetic Operator:

Example program:
1. class OperatorExample{

2. public static void main(String args[]){

3. int a=10;

4. int b=5;

5. System.out.println(a+b);//15

6. System.out.println(a-b);//5

7. System.out.println(a*b);//50

8. System.out.println(a/b);//2

9. System.out.println(a%b);//0

10. }}

Java Unary Operator

The Java unary operators require only one operand. Unary operators are
used to perform various operations i.e.:

Example:

class OperatorExample{

public static void main(String args[]){

int x=10;

System.out.println(x++);//10 (11)

System.out.println(++x);//12

System.out.println(x--);//12 (11)

System.out.println(--x);//10

}}

Java assignment operator:

Class AssignmentOperator

Public static void main(String arg[])

Byte b=10;

Byte c=b;

Int a=23;

Short s=45;

Int x=b;

Int y=s;

}}

Java relational operator:

>  greater than

<  less than

>=  greater than or equal to

<=  less than or equal to

==  perfectly equal to

!=  not equal to

EXAMPLE PROGRAM:
Class RelationalOperator
{

Public static void main(String arg[])

Int a=10;

Int b=20;

System.out.println(a==b);

System.out.println(a!=b);

System.out.println(a>b);

System.out.println(a<b);

System.out.println(a>=b);

System.out.println(a<=b);

}}

Java Ternary operator:

Class TernaryOperator

Public static void main(String arg[])

String str=null;

String str1=(str==null)? “true” : “false”;

System.out.println(str1);

String str2=(str1==null)? “true” : “false”;

System.out.println(str2);
Boolean x=(2>3)? True : false;

System.out.println(x);

}}

Java Left Shift Operator

The Java left shift operator << is used to shift all of the bits in a value to the
left side of a specified number of times.

Example:

1. class OperatorExample{

2. public static void main(String args[]){

3. System.out.println(10<<2);//10*2^2=10*4=40

4. System.out.println(10<<3);//10*2^3=10*8=80

5. System.out.println(20<<2);//20*2^2=20*4=80

6. System.out.println(15<<4);//15*2^4=15*16=240

7. }}

Java Right Shift Operator

The Java right shift operator >> is used to move left operands value to right
by the number of bits specified by the right operand.

Example:

1. class OperatorExample{

2. public static void main(String args[]){

3. System.out.println(10>>2);//10/2^2=10/4=2

4. System.out.println(20>>2);//20/2^2=20/4=5

5. System.out.println(20>>3);//20/2^3=20/8=2
 6. }}

Java logical operator:

&&  logiacl and

||  logical or

!  logical not

Java Strings
 Strings are used for storing text.
 A String variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by
double quotes:

Example:
Create a variable of type String and assign it a value:

String greeting = "Hello";

String Length
A String in Java is actually an object, which contain methods that can perform certain
operations on strings. For example, the length of a string can be found with
the length() method:

Example:
String txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";

System.out.println("The length of the txt string is: " + txt.length());

More String Methods
There are many string methods available, for
example toUpperCase() and toLowerCase():

Example:
String txt = "Hello World";

System.out.println(txt.toUpperCase()); // Outputs "HELLO WORLD"

System.out.println(txt.toLowerCase()); // Outputs "hello world"

Finding a Character in a String

The indexOf() method returns the index (the position) of the first occurrence of a
specified text in a string (including whitespace):

Example:
String txt = "Please locate where 'locate' occurs!";

System.out.println(txt.indexOf("locate")); // Outputs 7

 Java counts positions from zero.

 0 is the first position in a string, 1 is the second, 2 is the third ...

String Concatenation
The + operator can be used between strings to combine them. This is
called concatenation:

Example:
String firstName = "John";
String lastName = "Doe";

System.out.println(firstName + " " + lastName);

Note that we have added an empty text (" ") to create a space between firstName and
lastName on print.

You can also use the concat() method to concatenate two strings:

Another Example:
String firstName = "John ";

String lastName = "Doe";

System.out.println(firstName.concat(lastName));

Special Characters
 Because strings must be written within quotes, Java will misunderstand this
string, and generate an error:

 String txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";

 The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the backslash escape character.
 The backslash (\) escape character turns special characters into string
characters:

Escape character Result Description

\' ' Single quote

\" " Double quote

\\ \ Backslash

The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string:

Example:
String txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";

The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string:

Example:
String txt = "It\'s alright.";

The sequence \\ inserts a single backslash in a string:

Example:
String txt = "The character \\ is called backslash.";

Six other escape sequences are valid in Java:

Code Result

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed
Adding Numbers and Strings
WARNING!

Java uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation.

Numbers are added. Strings are concatenated.

If you add two numbers, the result will be a number:

Example:
int x = 10;

int y = 20;

int z = x + y; // z will be 30 (an integer/number)

If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:

Example:
String x = "10";

String y = "20";

String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)

If you add a number and a string, the result will be a string concatenation:

Example:
String x = "10";

int y = 20;

String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)

Java Booleans
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two
values, like:

 YES / NO
 ON / OFF
 TRUE / FALSE

For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can take the values true or false.

Boolean Values:
A boolean type is declared with the boolean keyword and can only take the
values true or false:

Example:
boolean isJavaFun = true;

boolean isFishTasty = false;

System.out.println(isJavaFun); // Outputs true

System.out.println(isFishTasty); // Outputs false

However, it is more common to return boolean values from boolean expressions, for
conditional testing (see below).

Boolean Expression:
A Boolean expression is a Java expression that returns a Boolean
value: true or false.

You can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator to find out if
an expression (or a variable) is true:

Example:
int x = 10;

int y = 9;

System.out.println(x > y); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9

Or even easier:

Example:
System.out.println(10 > 9); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9

In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an expression:

Example:
int x = 10;

System.out.println(x == 10); // returns true, because the value of x is

equal to 10

Example:
System.out.println(10 == 15); // returns false, because 10 is not equal
to 15

Java Keywords
 Java keywords are also known as reserved words. Keywords are
particular words which acts as a key to a code. These are predefined
words by Java so it cannot be used as a variable or object name.

Java conditional control statements

Java supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Less than: a < b

 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b
 Equal to a == b
 Not Equal to: a != b
You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different decisions.

Java has the following conditional statements:

 Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true

 Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false
 Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false
 Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed

The if Statement:
Use the if statement to specify a block of Java code to be executed if a condition
is true.

Syntax:
if (condition) {

// block of code to be executed if the condition is true

Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.

In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If the
condition is true, print some text:

Example:
if (20 > 18) {

System.out.println("20 is greater than 18");

We can also test variables:

Example:
int x = 20;

int y = 18;
if (x > y) {

System.out.println("x is greater than y");

The else Statement:

Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition
is false.

Syntax:
if (condition) {

// block of code to be executed if the condition is true

} else {

// block of code to be executed if the condition is false

Example:
int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {

System.out.println("Good day.");

} else {

System.out.println("Good evening.");

// Outputs "Good evening."

The else if Statement:

Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition is false.

Syntax:
if (condition1) {

// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true

} else if (condition2) {

// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and

condition2 is true

} else {
 // block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and
condition2 is false

Example:
int time = 22;

if (time < 10) {

System.out.println("Good morning.");

} else if (time < 20) {

System.out.println("Good day.");

} else {

System.out.println("Good evening.");

// Outputs "Good evening."

Java Nested if statement:

The nested if statement represents the if block within another if block. Here,
the inner if block condition executes only when outer if block condition is
true.

Syntax:

1. if(condition){

2. //code to be executed

3. if(condition){

4. //code to be executed

5. }

6. }
 Example:

1. //Java Program to demonstrate the use of Nested If Statement.

2. public class JavaNestedIfExample {

3. public static void main(String[] args) {

4. //Creating two variables for age and weight

5. int age=20;

6. int weight=80;

7. //applying condition on age and weight

8. if(age>=18){

9. if(weight>50){

10. System.out.println("You are eligible to donate blood");

11. }

12. }

13. }}

If...Else (Ternary Operator):

There is also a if else, which is known as the ternary operator because it consists of
three operands. It can be used to replace multiple lines of code with a single line. It is
often used to replace simple if else statements:

Syntax:
variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;

Example:
int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {

System.out.println("Good day.");

} else {

System.out.println("Good evening.");

}
Example:
int time = 20;

String result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening.";

System.out.println(result);

Java Switch Statements:

Use the switch statement to select one of many code blocks to be executed.

Syntax:
switch(expression) {

case x:

// code block

break;

case y:

// code block

break;

default:

// code block

This is how it works:

 The switch expression is evaluated once.

 The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case.
 If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed.
 The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this
chapter

The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday name:

Example:
int day = 4;

switch (day) {

case 1:

System.out.println("Monday");

break;

case 2:

System.out.println("Tuesday");

break;

case 3:

System.out.println("Wednesday");

break;

case 4:

System.out.println("Thursday");

break;

case 5:

System.out.println("Friday");

break;

case 6:

System.out.println("Saturday");

break;

case 7:

System.out.println("Sunday");

break;

// Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)

The default Keyword:
The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:

Example:
int day = 4;

switch (day) {

case 6:

System.out.println("Today is Saturday");

break;

case 7:

System.out.println("Today is Sunday");

break;

default:

System.out.println("Looking forward to the Weekend");

// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend"

The break Keyword:

 When Java reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.
 This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.
 When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no
need for more testing.
 A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of all
the rest of the code in the switch block.
 Java Loops
 Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.
 Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code
more readable.

Java While Loop:

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true:

Syntax:
while (condition) {

// code block to be executed

In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long as a
variable (i) is less than 5:

Example:
int i = 0;

while (i < 5) {

System.out.println(i);

i++;

Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop
will never end!
The Do/While Loop:
The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block
once, before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the
condition is true.

Syntax:
do {

// code block to be executed

while (condition);

The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at least
once, even if the condition is false, because the code block is executed before the
condition is tested:

Example:
int i = 0;
do {

System.out.println(i);

i++;

while (i < 5);

Java For Loop:

When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use
the for loop instead of a while loop:

Syntax:
for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {

// code block to be executed

}
Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.

Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.

Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been executed.

The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:

Example:
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

System.out.println(i);

Another Example:
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:

for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {

System.out.println(i);

Java unconditional control statements:

Java break:
 You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier
chapter of this tutorial. It was used to "jump out" of
a switch statement.
 The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.
This example stops the loop when i is equal to 4:

Example:
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {

break;

System.out.println(i);

Java Continue:
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified
condition occurs, and continues with the next iteration in the loop.

This example skips the value of 4:

Example:
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {

continue;

System.out.println(i);

}
Break in While Loop:
You can also use break and continue in while loops:

Example:
int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {

System.out.println(i);

i++;

if (i == 4) {

break;

Continue in While Loop:

Example:
int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {

if (i == 4) {

i++;

continue;

System.out.println(i);

i++;
}

Java Arrays


Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring
separate variables for each value.

 To declare an array, define the variable type with square brackets:

 String[] cars;

 We have now declared a variable that holds an array of strings. To insert values
to it, we can use an array literal - place the values in a comma-separated list,
inside curly braces:

 String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

 To create an array of integers, you could write:

int[] myNum = {10, 20, 30, 40};

Access the Elements of an Array:

You access an array element by referring to the index number.

This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:

Example:
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

System.out.println(cars[0]);

// Outputs Volvo

Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.
Change an Array Element:
To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:

Example:
cars[0] = "Opel";

Example:
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

cars[0] = "Opel";

System.out.println(cars[0]);

// Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo

Array Length:
To find out how many elements an array has, use the length property:

Example:
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

System.out.println(cars.length);

// Outputs 4

Loop Through an Array:

You can loop through the array elements with the for loop, and use
the length property to specify how many times the loop should run.
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:

Example:
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for (int i = 0; i < cars.length; i++) {

System.out.println(cars[i]);

Multidimensional Arrays:
A multidimensional array is an array of arrays.

To create a two-dimensional array, add each array within its own set of curly braces:

Example:
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

myNumbers is now an array with two arrays as its elements.

To access the elements of the myNumbers array, specify two indexes: one for the
array, and one for the element inside that array. This example accesses the third
element (2) in the second array (1) of myNumbers:

Example:
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

int x = myNumbers[1][2];

System.out.println(x); // Outputs 7

We can also use a for loop inside another for loop to get the elements of a two-
dimensional array (we still have to point to the two indexes):

Example:
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

for (int i = 0; i < myNumbers.length; ++i) {

for(int j = 0; j < myNumbers[i].length; ++j) {

System.out.println(myNumbers[i][j]);

Java Methods

 A method is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

 You can pass data, known as parameters, into a method.
 Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known
as functions.

Why use methods? To reuse code: define the code once, and use it many times.

Create a Method
A method must be declared within a class. It is defined with the name of the method,
followed by parentheses (). Java provides some pre-defined methods, such
as System.out.println(), but you can also create your own methods to perform
certain actions:

Example:
Create a method inside Main:

public class Main {

static void myMethod() {

// code to be executed
 }

Call a Method:
To call a method in Java, write the method's name followed by two parentheses () and a
semicolon;

In the following example, myMethod() is used to print a text (the action), when it is
called:

Example:
Inside main, call the myMethod() method:

public class Main {

static void myMethod() {

System.out.println("I just got executed!");

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();

// Outputs "I just got executed!"

A method can also be called multiple times:

Example:
public class Main {

static void myMethod() {

 System.out.println("I just got executed!");

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();

myMethod();

myMethod();

// I just got executed!

// I just got executed!

// I just got executed!

Parameters and Arguments

 Information can be passed to methods as parameter. Parameters act as
variables inside the method.

 Parameters are specified after the method name, inside the

parentheses. You can add as many parameters as you want, just
separate them with a comma.

 The following example has a method that takes a String called fname
as parameter. When the method is called, we pass along a first name,
which is used inside the method to print the full name:

Example:
public class Main {
 static void myMethod(String fname) {

System.out.println(fname + " Refsnes");

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod("Liam");

myMethod("Jenny");

myMethod("Anja");

// Liam Refsnes

// Jenny Refsnes

// Anja Refsnes

Multiple Parameters
You can have as many parameters as you like:

Example:
public class Main {

static void myMethod(String fname, int age) {

System.out.println(fname + " is " + age);

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod("Liam", 5);

myMethod("Jenny", 8);
 myMethod("Anja", 31);

// Liam is 5

// Jenny is 8

// Anja is 31

Return Values
 The void keyword, used in the examples above, indicates that the
method should not return a value.

 If you want the method to return a value, you can use a primitive
data type (such as int, char, etc.) instead of void, and use the
return keyword inside the method:

Example:
public class Main {

static int myMethod(int x) {

return 5 + x;

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(myMethod(3));

// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
Example:
public class Main {

static int myMethod(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(myMethod(5, 3));

// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

Example:
public class Main {

static int myMethod(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

public static void main(String[] args) {

int z = myMethod(5, 3);

System.out.println(z);

// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
A Method with If...Else
It is common to use if...else statements inside methods:

Example:
public class Main {

// Create a checkAge() method with an integer variable called age

static void checkAge(int age) {

// If age is less than 18, print "access denied"

if (age < 18) {

System.out.println("Access denied - You are not old enough!");

// If age is greater than, or equal to, 18, print "access granted"

} else {

System.out.println("Access granted - You are old enough!");

public static void main(String[] args) {

checkAge(20); // Call the checkAge method and pass along an age of 20

// Outputs "Access granted - You are old enough!"

Java Method Overloading
With method overloading, multiple methods can have the same name with
different parameters:

Example:
int myMethod(int x)

float myMethod(float x)

double myMethod(double x, double y)

Consider the following example, which has two methods that add numbers of
different type:

Example:
static int plusMethodInt(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

static double plusMethodDouble(double x, double y) {

return x + y;

public static void main(String[] args) {

int myNum1 = plusMethodInt(8, 5);

double myNum2 = plusMethodDouble(4.3, 6.26);

System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);

 System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);

Instead of defining two methods that should do the same thing, it is

better to overload one.

In the example below, we overload the plusMethod method to work for

both int and double:

Example:
static int plusMethod(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

static double plusMethod(double x, double y) {

return x + y;

public static void main(String[] args) {

int myNum1 = plusMethod(8, 5);

double myNum2 = plusMethod(4.3, 6.26);

System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);

System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);

Java Scope
 In Java, variables are only accessible inside the region they are
created. This is called scope.
Method Scope
 Variables declared directly inside a method are available anywhere
in the method following the line of code in which they were
declared:

Example:
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Code here CANNOT use x

int x = 100;

// Code here can use x

System.out.println(x);

Block Scope
 A block of code refers to all of the code between curly braces {}.
 Variables declared inside blocks of code are only accessible by the
code between the curly braces, which follows the line in which the
variable was declared:

Example:
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

 // Code here CANNOT use x

{ // This is a block

// Code here CANNOT use x

int x = 100;

// Code here CAN use x

System.out.println(x);

} // The block ends here

// Code here CANNOT use x

Java Recursion
 Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This
technique provides a way to break complicated problems down into
simple problems which are easier to solve.

 Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to

figure out how it works is to experiment with it.

Recursion Example
Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of numbers
is more complicated. In the following example, recursion is used to add a
range of numbers together by breaking it down into the simple task of
adding two numbers:

Example
Use recursion to add all of the numbers up to 10.

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int result = sum(10);

System.out.println(result);

public static int sum(int k) {

if (k > 0) {

return k + sum(k - 1);

} else {

return 0;

10 + sum(9)

10 + ( 9 + sum(8) )

10 + ( 9 + ( 8 + sum(7) ) )

...

10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + sum(0)

10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 0
Since the function does not call itself when k is 0, the program stops
there and returns the result.

Halting Condition:
 Just as loops can run into the problem of infinite looping,
recursive functions can run into the problem of infinite recursion.
 Infinite recursion is when the function never stops calling itself.
Every recursive function should have a halting condition, which is
the condition where the function stops calling itself.
 In the previous example, the halting condition is when the parameter
k becomes 0.
 It is helpful to see a variety of different examples to better
understand the concept.
 In this example, the function adds a range of numbers between a
start and an end. The halting condition for this recursive function
is when end is not greater than start:

Example:
Use recursion to add all of the numbers between 5 to 10.

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int result = sum(5, 10);

System.out.println(result);

public static int sum(int start, int end) {

if (end > start) {

return end + sum(start, end - 1);

} else {

return end;

}
 }

Java - What is OOP?

 OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming.
 Procedural programming is about writing procedures or methods that
perform operations on the data, while object-oriented programming is
about creating objects that contain both data and methods.

 Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural

programming:

 OOP is faster and easier to execute

 OOP provides a clear structure for the programs
 OOP helps to keep the Java code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and
makes the code easier to maintain, modify and debug
 OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less
code and shorter development time

Java - What are Classes and Objects?

 Classes and objects are the two main aspects of object-oriented
programming.
 Look at the following illustration to see the difference between
class and objects:

Another example:

Class object
s

Apple

Banana
 Class objects

Volvo

car Audi
fruite Mango
Toyota

 So, a class is a template for objects, and an object is an instance

of a class.

 When the individual objects are created, they inherit all the
variables and methods from the class.

Java Classes/Objects
 Java is an object-oriented programming language.
 Everything in Java is associated with classes and objects, along
with its attributes and methods. For example: in real life, a car is
an object. The car has attributes, such as weight and color, and
methods, such as drive and brake.
 A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating
objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

Main.java
Create a class named "Main" with a variable x:

public class Main {

int x = 5;

Remember from the Java Syntax chapter that a class should always start
with an uppercase first letter, and that the name of the java file should
match the class name.
Create an Object
 In Java, an object is created from a class. We have already created
the class named Main, so now we can use this to create objects.
 To create an object of Main, specify the class name, followed by the
object name, and use the keyword new:

Example
Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:

public class Main {

int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main();

System.out.println(myObj.x);

Multiple Objects
You can create multiple objects of one class:

Example
Create two objects of Main:

public class Main {

 int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj1 = new Main(); // Object 1

Main myObj2 = new Main(); // Object 2

System.out.println(myObj1.x);

System.out.println(myObj2.x);

Using Multiple Classes

 You can also create an object of a class and access it in another
class.
 This is often used for better organization of classes (one class has
all the attributes and methods, while the other class holds the
main() method (code to be executed)).
 Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name.
In this example, we have created two files in the same
directory/folder:
 Main.java
 Second.java

Main.java
public class Main {

int x = 5;

Second.java
class Second {

public static void main(String[] args) {

 Main myObj = new Main();

System.out.println(myObj.x);

When both files have been compiled:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Main.java

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Second.java

Run the Second.java file:

C:\Users\Your Name>java Second

And the output will be:

Java Class Attributes

In the previous chapter, we used the term "variable" for x in the example
(as shown below). It is actually an attribute of the class. Or you could
say that class attributes are variables within a class:

Example
Create a class called "Main" with two attributes: x and y:

public class Main {

int x = 5;

int y = 3;

}
Another term for class attributes is fields.

Accessing Attributes
You can access attributes by creating an object of the class, and by
using the dot syntax (.):

The following example will create an object of the Main class, with the
name myObj. We use the x attribute on the object to print its value:

Example
Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:

public class Main {

int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main();

System.out.println(myObj.x);

Modify Attributes
You can also modify attribute values:
Example
Set the value of x to 40:

public class Main {

int x;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main();

myObj.x = 40;

System.out.println(myObj.x);

Or override existing values:

Example
Change the value of x to 25:

public class Main {

int x = 10;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main();

myObj.x = 25; // x is now 25

System.out.println(myObj.x);
 }

If you don't want the ability to override existing values, declare the
attribute as final:

Example
public class Main {

final int x = 10;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main();

myObj.x = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a

final variable

System.out.println(myObj.x);

 The final keyword is useful when you want a variable to always store
the same value, like PI (3.14159...).

 The final keyword is called a "modifier". You will learn more about
these in the Java Modifiers Chapter.
Multiple Objects
If you create multiple objects of one class, you can change the
attribute values in one object, without affecting the attribute values in
the other:

Example
Change the value of x to 25 in myObj2, and leave x in myObj1 unchanged:

public class Main {

int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj1 = new Main(); // Object 1

Main myObj2 = new Main(); // Object 2

myObj2.x = 25;

System.out.println(myObj1.x); // Outputs 5

System.out.println(myObj2.x); // Outputs 25

Multiple Attributes
You can specify as many attributes as you want:

Example
public class Main {

String fname = "John";

 String lname = "Doe";

int age = 24;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main();

System.out.println("Name: " + myObj.fname + " " + myObj.lname);

System.out.println("Age: " + myObj.age);

Java Class Methods

You learned from the Java Methods chapter that methods are declared
within a class, and that they are used to perform certain actions:

Example
Create a method named myMethod() in Main:

public class Main {

static void myMethod() {

System.out.println("Hello World!");

}
myMethod() prints a text (the action), when it is called. To call a
method, write the method's name followed by two parentheses () and a
semicolon;

Example
Inside main, call myMethod():

public class Main {

static void myMethod() {

System.out.println("Hello World!");

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();

// Outputs "Hello World!"

Static vs. Non-Static

 You will often see Java programs that have either static or public
attributes and methods.

 In the example above, we created a static method, which means that

it can be accessed without creating an object of the class, unlike
public, which can only be accessed by objects:
Example
An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public
methods:

public class Main {

// Static method

static void myStaticMethod() {

System.out.println("Static methods can be called without creating

objects");

// Public method

public void myPublicMethod() {

System.out.println("Public methods must be called by creating

objects");

// Main method

public static void main(String[] args) {

myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method

// myPublicMethod(); This would compile an error

Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of Main

myObj.myPublicMethod(); // Call the public method on the object

}
Access Methods With an Object
Example
Create a Car object named myCar. Call the fullThrottle() and speed()
methods on the myCar object, and run the program:

// Create a Main class

public class Main {

// Create a fullThrottle() method

public void fullThrottle() {

System.out.println("The car is going as fast as it can!");

// Create a speed() method and add a parameter

public void speed(int maxSpeed) {

System.out.println("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);

// Inside main, call the methods on the myCar object

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myCar = new Main(); // Create a myCar object

myCar.fullThrottle(); // Call the fullThrottle() method

myCar.speed(200); // Call the speed() method

}
// The car is going as fast as it can!

// Max speed is: 200

Using Multiple Classes

Like we specified in the Classes chapter, it is a good practice to create
an object of a class and access it in another class.

Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name. In
this example, we have created two files in the same directory:

Main.java

Second.java

Main.java
public class Main {

public void fullThrottle() {

System.out.println("The car is going as fast as it can!");

public void speed(int maxSpeed) {

System.out.println("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);

Second.java
class Second {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myCar = new Main(); // Create a myCar object

myCar.fullThrottle(); // Call the fullThrottle() method

 myCar.speed(200); // Call the speed() method

When both files have been compiled:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Main.java

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Second.java

Run the Second.java file:

C:\Users\Your Name>java Second

And the output will be:

The car is going as fast as it can!

Max speed is: 200

Java Constructors
A constructor in Java is a special method that is used to initialize
objects. The constructor is called when an object of a class is created.
It can be used to set initial values for object attributes:

Example
Create a constructor:

// Create a Main class

public class Main {

int x; // Create a class attribute

 // Create a class constructor for the Main class

public Main() {

x = 5; // Set the initial value for the class attribute x

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of class Main (This will
call the constructor)

System.out.println(myObj.x); // Print the value of x

// Outputs 5

Constructor Parameters
 Constructors can also take parameters, which is used to initialize
attributes.

 The following example adds an int y parameter to the constructor.

Inside the constructor we set x to y (x=y). When we call the
constructor, we pass a parameter to the constructor (5), which will
set the value of x to 5:

Example
public class Main {

int x;
 public Main(int y) {

x = y;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main(5);

System.out.println(myObj.x);

// Outputs 5

You can have as many parameters as you want:

Example
public class Main {

int modelYear;

String modelName;

public Main(int year, String name) {

modelYear = year;

modelName = name;

public static void main(String[] args) {

 Main myCar = new Main(1969, "Mustang");

System.out.println(myCar.modelYear + " " + myCar.modelName);

// Outputs 1969 Mustang

Java Modifiers
Modifiers:
 By now, you are quite familiar with the public keyword that appears
in almost all of our examples:

public class Main

 The public keyword is an access modifier, meaning that it is used to

set the access level for classes, attributes, methods and
constructors.

We divide modifiers into two groups:

 Access Modifiers - controls the access level
 Non-Access Modifiers - do not control access level, but provides
other functionality

Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either public or default:

Modifier Description
 public The class is accessible by any other class.

default The class is only accessible by classes in the same package.

This is used when you don't specify a modifier.

For attributes, methods and constructors, you can use the one of the
following:

Modifier Description

Public The code is accessible for all classes

private The code is only accessible within the declared class

default The code is only accessible in the same package. This is used
when
you don't specify a modifier.
protecte
The code is accessible in the same package and subclasses.

Non-Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either final or abstract:

Modifier Description

final The class cannot be inherited by other classes

abstract The class cannot be used to create objects (To access an

abstractclass, it must be inherited from another class.

For attributes and methods, you can use the one of the following:

Modifier Description
 final Attributes and methods cannot be overridden/modified

static Attributes and methods belongs to the class, rather than an

Object.

abstract Can only be used in an abstract class, and can only be

used on methods. The method does not have a body, for
example
abstract void run();. The body is provided by the subclass
(inherited from).
transient
Attributes and methods are skipped when serializing the
object containing them
synchronize
d Methods can only be accessed by one thread at a time

volatile The value of an attribute is not cached thread-locally,

and is always read from the "main memory"

Final
If you don't want the ability to override existing attribute values,
declare attributes as final:

Example
public class Main {

final int x = 10;

final double PI = 3.14;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main myObj = new Main();

myObj.x = 50; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a

final variable

myObj.PI = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a

final variable

System.out.println(myObj.x);
 }

Static
A static method means that it can be accessed without creating an object
of the class, unlike public:

Example
An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public
methods:

public class Main {

// Static method

static void myStaticMethod() {

System.out.println("Static methods can be called without creating

objects");

// Public method

public void myPublicMethod() {

System.out.println("Public methods must be called by creating

objects");

// Main method

public static void main(String[ ] args) {

myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method

 // myPublicMethod(); This would output an error

Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of Main

myObj.myPublicMethod(); // Call the public method

Abstract
An abstract method belongs to an abstract class, and it does not have a
body. The body is provided by the subclass:

Example
// Code from filename: Main.java

// abstract class

abstract class Main {

public String fname = "John";

public int age = 24;

public abstract void study(); // abstract method

// Subclass (inherit from Main)

class Student extends Main {

public int graduationYear = 2018;

public void study() { // the body of the abstract method is provided

here

System.out.println("Studying all day long");

}
}

// End code from filename: Main.java

// Code from filename: Second.java

class Second {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// create an object of the Student class (which inherits attributes

and methods from Main)

Student myObj = new Student();

System.out.println("Name: " + myObj.fname);

System.out.println("Age: " + myObj.age);

System.out.println("Graduation Year: " + myObj.graduationYear);

myObj.study(); // call abstract method

Java Encapsulation:

The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is

hidden from users. To achieve this, you must:

 declare class variables/attributes as private

 provide public get and set methods to access and update the value of
a private variable

Get and Set

 private variables can only be accessed within the same class (an
outside class has no access to it). However, it is possible to
access them if we provide public get and set methods.
  The get method returns the variable value, and the set method sets
the value.

 Syntax for both is that they start with either get or set, followed
by the name of the variable, with the first letter in upper case:

Example
public class Person {

private String name; // private = restricted access

// Getter

public String getName() {

return name;

// Setter

public void setName(String newName) {

this.name = newName;

Example
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Person myObj = new Person();

myObj.name = "John"; // error

System.out.println(myObj.name); // error
 }

O/P:John

MyClass.java:4: error: name has private access in Person

myObj.name = "John";

MyClass.java:5: error: name has private access in Person

System.out.println(myObj.name);

2 errors

Instead, we use the getName() and setName() methods to access and update
the variable:

Example
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Person myObj = new Person();

myObj.setName("John"); // Set the value of the name variable to

"John"

System.out.println(myObj.getName());

// Outputs "John"
Java Package
 A java package is a group of similar types of classes, interfaces
and sub-packages.
 Package in java can be categorized in two form, built-in package and
user-defined package.
 There are many built-in packages such as java, lang, awt, javax,
swing, net, io, util, sql etc.
 Here, we will have the detailed learning of creating and using user-
defined packages.

Advantage of Java Package:

1) Java package is used to categorize the classes and interfaces so that
they can be easily maintained.

2) Java package provides access protection.

3) Java package removes naming collision.

Syntax:
import package.name.Class; // Import a single class

import package.name.*; // Import the whole package

Import a Class

If you find a class you want to use, for example, the Scanner class,
which is used to get user input, write the following code:

Example
import java.util.Scanner;

In the example above, java.util is a package, while Scanner is a class of

the java.util package.

To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of
the available methods found in the Scanner class documentation. In our
example, we will use the nextLine() method, which is used to read a
complete line:
Example
Using the Scanner class to get user input:

import java.util.Scanner;

class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("Enter username");

String userName = myObj.nextLine();

System.out.println("Username is: " + userName);

User-defined Packages
 To create your own package, you need to understand that Java uses a
file system directory to store them. Just like folders on your
computer:

Example
└── root

└── mypack

└── MyPackageClass.java

To create a package, use the package keyword:

MyPackageClass.java
package mypack;

class MyPackageClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("This is my package!");

Save the file as MyPackageClass.java, and compile it:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac MyPackageClass.java

Then compile the package:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac -d . MyPackageClass.java

This forces the compiler to create the "mypack" package.

C:\Users\Your Name>java mypack.MyPackageClass

The output will be:

This is my package!

Java Inheritance
 Java Inheritance (Subclass and Superclass)
 In Java, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one
class to another. We group the "inheritance concept" into two
categories:
 subclass (child) - the class that inherits from another class
superclass (parent) - the class being inherited from To inherit from
a class, use the extends keyword.
In the example below, the Car class (subclass) inherits the attributes
and methods from the Vehicle class (superclass):

Example
class Vehicle {

protected String brand = "Ford"; // Vehicle attribute

public void honk() { // Vehicle method

System.out.println("Tuut, tuut!");

class Car extends Vehicle {

private String modelName = "Mustang"; // Car attribute

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Create a myCar object

Car myCar = new Car();

// Call the honk() method (from the Vehicle class) on the myCar
object

myCar.honk();

// Display the value of the brand attribute (from the Vehicle class)
and the value of the modelName from the Car class

System.out.println(myCar.brand + " " + myCar.modelName);

}
Did you notice the protected modifier in Vehicle?

We set the brand attribute in Vehicle to a protected access modifier. If

it was set to private, the Car class would not be able to access it.

Why And When To Use "Inheritance"?

- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an

existing class when you create a new class.

Tip: Also take a look at the next chapter, Polymorphism, which uses
inherited methods to perform different tasks.

The final Keyword

If you don't want other classes to inherit from a class, use the final
keyword:

If you try to access a final class, Java will generate an error:

final class Vehicle {

...

class Car extends Vehicle {

...

The output will be something like this:

Main.java:9: error: cannot inherit from final Vehicle

class Main extends Vehicle {

1 error)

Java Polymorphism
 Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many
classes that are related to each other by inheritance.
 Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us
inherit attributes and methods from another class. Polymorphism uses
those methods to perform different tasks. This allows us to perform
a single action in different ways. Example

class Animal {

public void animalSound() {

System.out.println("The animal makes a sound");

class Pig extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {

System.out.println("The pig says: wee wee");

class Dog extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {

System.out.println("The dog says: bow wow");

}
Now we can create Pig and Dog objects and call the animalSound() method
on both of them:

Example
class Animal {

public void animalSound() {

System.out.println("The animal makes a sound");

class Pig extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {

System.out.println("The pig says: wee wee");

class Dog extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {

System.out.println("The dog says: bow wow");

class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Animal myAnimal = new Animal(); // Create a Animal object

Animal myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object

 Animal myDog = new Dog(); // Create a Dog object

myAnimal.animalSound();

myPig.animalSound();

myDog.animalSound();

Java Inner Classes

In Java, it is also possible to nest classes (a class within a class).
The purpose of nested classes is to group classes that belong together,
which makes your code more readable and maintainable.

To access the inner class, create an object of the outer class, and then
create an object of the inner class:

Example
class OuterClass {

int x = 10;

class InnerClass {

int y = 5;

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

 OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();

OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = myOuter.new InnerClass();

System.out.println(myInner.y + myOuter.x);

// Outputs 15 (5 + 10)

Private Inner Class

 Unlike a "regular" class, an inner class can be private or
protected. If you don't want outside objects to access the inner
class, declare the class as private:

Example
class OuterClass {

int x = 10;

private class InnerClass {

int y = 5;

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();

OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = myOuter.new InnerClass();

 System.out.println(myInner.y + myOuter.x);

If you try to access a private inner class from an outside class, an

error occurs:

Main.java:13: error: OuterClass.InnerClass has private access in

OuterClass

OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = myOuter.new InnerClass();

Static Inner Class

 An inner class can also be static, which means that you can access
it without creating an object of the outer class:

Example
class OuterClass {

int x = 10;

static class InnerClass {

int y = 5;

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

 OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = new OuterClass.InnerClass();

System.out.println(myInner.y);

// Outputs 5

Note: just like static attributes and methods, a static inner class does
not have access to members of the outer class.

Access Outer Class From Inner Class

One advantage of inner classes, is that they can access attributes and
methods of the outer class:

Example
class OuterClass {

int x = 10;

class InnerClass {

public int myInnerMethod() {

return x;

public class Main {

 public static void main(String[] args) {

OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();

OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = myOuter.new InnerClass();

System.out.println(myInner.myInnerMethod());

// Outputs 10

Java Abstraction
 Abstract Classes and Methods
 Data abstraction is the process of hiding certain details and
showing only essential information to the user.

 Abstraction can be achieved with either abstract classes or

interfaces (which you will learn more about in the next chapter).

 The abstract keyword is a non-access modifier, used for classes and

methods:

 Abstract class: is a restricted class that cannot be used to create

objects (to access it, it must be inherited from another class).

 Abstract method: can only be used in an abstract class, and it does

not have a body. The body is provided by the subclass (inherited
from).

An abstract class can have both abstract and regular methods:

abstract class Animal {

public abstract void animalSound();

 public void sleep() {

System.out.println("Zzz");

From the example above, it is not possible to create an object of the

Animal class:

Animal myObj = new Animal(); // will generate an error

To access the abstract class, it must be inherited from another class.

Let's convert the Animal class we used in the Polymorphism chapter to an
abstract class:

Example
// Abstract class

abstract class Animal {

// Abstract method (does not have a body)

public abstract void animalSound();

// Regular method

public void sleep() {

System.out.println("Zzz");

// Subclass (inherit from Animal)

class Pig extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {

// The body of animalSound() is provided here

 System.out.println("The pig says: wee wee");

class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object

myPig.animalSound();

myPig.sleep();

Interfaces
 Another way to achieve abstraction in Java, is with interfaces.

 An interface is a completely "abstract class" that is used to group

related methods with empty bodies:

Example
// interface

interface Animal {

public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)

public void run(); // interface method (does not have a body)

To access the interface methods, the interface must be "implemented"

(kinda like inherited) by another class with the implements keyword
(instead of extends). The body of the interface method is provided by the
"implement" class:

Example
// Interface

interface Animal {

public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)

public void sleep(); // interface method (does not have a body)

// Pig "implements" the Animal interface

class Pig implements Animal {

public void animalSound() {

// The body of animalSound() is provided here

System.out.println("The pig says: wee wee");

public void sleep() {

// The body of sleep() is provided here

System.out.println("Zzz");

class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object

myPig.animalSound();

myPig.sleep();
 }

Notes on Interfaces:

 Like abstract classes, interfaces cannot be used to create objects

(in the example above, it is not possible to create an "Animal"
object in the MyMainClass)
 Interface methods do not have a body - the body is provided by the
"implement" class
 On implementation of an interface, you must override all of its
methods
 Interface methods are by default abstract and public
 Interface attributes are by default public, static and final
 An interface cannot contain a constructor (as it cannot be used to
create objects)

Multiple Interfaces
To implement multiple interfaces, separate them with a comma:

Example
interface FirstInterface {

public void myMethod(); // interface method

interface SecondInterface {

public void myOtherMethod(); // interface method

}
class DemoClass implements FirstInterface, SecondInterface {

public void myMethod() {

System.out.println("Some text..");

public void myOtherMethod() {

System.out.println("Some other text...");

class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

DemoClass myObj = new DemoClass();

myObj.myMethod();

myObj.myOtherMethod();

Java User Input

 The Scanner class is used to get user input, and it is found in the
java.util package.

 To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any
of the available methods found in the Scanner class documentation.
In our example, we will use the nextLine() method, which is used to
read Strings:

Example
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class

class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in); // Create a Scanner object

System.out.println("Enter username");

String userName = myObj.nextLine(); // Read user input

System.out.println("Username is: " + userName); // Output user input

Input Types:
In the example above, we used the nextLine() method, which is used to
read Strings. To read other types, look at the table below:

MethodDescription:

nextBoolean() Reads a boolean value from the user

nextByte() Reads a byte value from the user

nextDouble() Reads a double value from the user

nextFloat() Reads a float value from the user

nextInt() Reads a int value from the user

 nextLine() Reads a String value from the user

nextLong() Reads a long value from the user

nextShort() Reads a short value from the user

In the example below, we use different methods to read data of various

types:

Example
import java.util.Scanner;

class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.println("Enter name, age and salary:");

// String input

String name = myObj.nextLine();

// Numerical input

int age = myObj.nextInt();

double salary = myObj.nextDouble();

// Output input by user

System.out.println("Name: " + name);

 System.out.println("Age: " + age);

System.out.println("Salary: " + salary);

Java Exceptions - Try...Catch

Java Exceptions:
 When executing Java code, different errors can occur: coding errors
made by the programmer, errors due to wrong input, or other
unforeseeable things.
 When an error occurs, Java will normally stop and generate an error
message. The technical term for this is: Java will throw an
exception (throw an error).

What is Exception Handling

 Exception Handling is a mechanism to handle runtime errors such as
ClassNotFoundException, IOException, SQLException, RemoteException,
etc.

Advantage of Exception Handling

 The core advantage of exception handling is to maintain the normal
flow of the application. An exception normally disrupts the normal
flow of the application that is why we use exception handling.

Hierarchy of Java Exception classes

 The java.lang.Throwable class is the root class of Java Exception
hierarchy which is inherited by two subclasses: Exception and Error.
A hierarchy of Java Exception classes are given below:
 

Types of Java Exceptions

There are mainly two types of exceptions: checked and unchecked. Here, an
error is considered as the unchecked exception. According to Oracle,
there are three types of exceptions:

1. Checked Exception
2. Unchecked Exception
3. Error

Difference between Checked and Unchecked

Exceptions
1) Checked Exception
 The classes which directly inherit Throwable class except
RuntimeException and Error are known as checked exceptions e.g.
IOException, SQLException etc. Checked exceptions are checked at
compile-time.

2) Unchecked Exception
 The classes which inherit RuntimeException are known as unchecked
exceptions e.g. ArithmeticException, NullPointerException,
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException etc. Unchecked exceptions are not
checked at compile-time, but they are checked at runtime.

3) Error
 Error is irrecoverable e.g. OutOfMemoryError, VirtualMachineError,
AssertionError etc.
Java Exception Keywords
There are 5 keywords which are used in handling exceptions in Java.

Keyword Description

Try The "try" keyword is used to specify a block where we

should place exception code. The try block must be followed by
either catch or finally. It means, we can't use try block alone.

The "catch" block is used to handle the exception.

catch It must be preceded by try block which means we can't use catch
block alone. It can be followed by finally block later.

The "finally" block is used to execute the important code

finally of the program. It is executed whether an exception is handled
or
not.

throw The "throw" keyword is used to throw an exception.

Java try and catch:

 The try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested
for errors while it is being executed.

 The catch statement allows you to define a block of code to be

executed, if an error occurs in the try block.

 The try and catch keywords come in pairs:

Syntax:
try {

// Block of code to try

catch(Exception e) {

// Block of code to handle errors

Consider the following example:

This will generate an error, because myNumbers[10] does not exist.

public class Main {

public static void main(String[ ] args) {

int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3};

System.out.println(myNumbers[10]); // error!

The output will be something like this:

Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 10

at Main.main(Main.java:4)

If an error occurs, we can use try...catch to catch the error and execute
some code to handle it:

Example
public class Main {

public static void main(String[ ] args) {

try {
 int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3};

System.out.println(myNumbers[10]);

} catch (Exception e) {

System.out.println("Something went wrong.");

The output will be:

Something went wrong.

 The finally statement lets you execute code, after try...catch,

regardless of the result:

Finally block Example:

1. class TestFinallyBlock{

2. public static void main(String args[]){

3. try{

4. int data=25/5;

5. System.out.println(data);

6. }

7. catch(NullPointerException e){System.out.println(e);}

8. finally{System.out.println("finally block is always executed");}

9. System.out.println("rest of the code...");

10. }

11. }
Example
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

try {

int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3};

System.out.println(myNumbers[10]);

} catch (Exception e) {

System.out.println("Something went wrong.");

} finally {

System.out.println("The 'try catch' is finished.");

The output will be:

Something went wrong.

The 'try catch' is finished.

Java Exception Handling Example:

1. public class JavaExceptionExample{

2. public static void main(String args[]){

3. try{

4. //code that may raise exception

5. int data=100/0;

6. }catch(ArithmeticException e){System.out.println(e);}
7. //rest code of the program

8. System.out.println("rest of the code...");

9. }

10. }

The throw keyword:

The throw statement allows you to create a custom error.

The throw statement is used together with an exception type. There are
many exception types available in Java:

ArithmeticException,

FileNotFoundException,

ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException,

SecurityException,

etc:

Example
 Throw an exception if age is below 18 (print "Access denied"). If
age is 18 or older, print "Access granted":

public class Main {

static void checkAge(int age) {

if (age < 18) {

throw new ArithmeticException("Access denied - You must be at least

18 years old.");

else {
 System.out.println("Access granted - You are old enough!");

public static void main(String[] args) {

checkAge(15); // Set age to 15 (which is below 18...)

The output will be:

Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ArithmeticException: Access denied -
You must be at least 18 years old.

at Main.checkAge(Main.java:4)

at Main.main(Main.java:12)

If age was 20, you would not get an exception:

Example:
checkAge(20);

The output will be:

Access granted - You are old enough!

Example:
1. public class TestThrow1{

2. static void validate(int age){

3. if(age<18)

4. throw new ArithmeticException("not valid");

5. else
6. System.out.println("welcome to vote");

7. }

8. public static void main(String args[]){

9. validate(13);

10. System.out.println("rest of the code...");

11. }

12. }

Syntax of java throws

1. return_type method_name() throws exception_class_name{

2. //method code

3. }

Example:
4. import java.io.*;

5. class M{

6. void method()throws IOException{

7. throw new IOException("device error");

8. }

9. }

10. public class Testthrows2{

11. public static void main(String args[]){

12. try{

13. M m=new M();

14. m.method();

15. }catch(Exception e){System.out.println("exception handled");}

16.

17. System.out.println("normal flow...");

18. }

19. }

Syntax of java throws

1. return_type method_name() throws exception_class_name{

2. //method code

3. }

Example:
4. import java.io.*;

5. class M{

6. void method()throws IOException{

7. throw new IOException("device error");

8. }

9. }

10. public class Testthrows2{

11. public static void main(String args[]){

12. try{

13. M m=new M();

14. m.method();

15. }catch(Exception e){System.out.println("exception handled");}

16.

17. System.out.println("normal flow...");

18. }

19. }

Java Threads
  Threads allows a program to operate more efficiently by doing
multiple things at the same time.

 Threads can be used to perform complicated tasks in the background

without interrupting the main program.

Creating a Thread:
 There are two ways to create a thread.

 It can be created by extending the Thread class and overriding its

run() method:

Extend Syntax:
public class Main extends Thread {

public void run() {

System.out.println("This code is running in a thread");

Another way to create a thread is to implement the Runnable interface:

Implement Syntax:
public class Main implements Runnable {

public void run() {

System.out.println("This code is running in a thread");

Running Threads
If the class extends the Thread class, the thread can be run by creating
an instance of the class and call its start() method:

Extend Example
public class Main extends Thread {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main thread = new Main();

thread.start();

System.out.println("This code is outside of the thread");

public void run() {

System.out.println("This code is running in a thread");

If the class implements the Runnable interface, the thread can be run by
passing an instance of the class to a Thread object's constructor and
then calling the thread's start() method:

Implement Example
public class Main implements Runnable {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main obj = new Main();

Thread thread = new Thread(obj);

thread.start();

System.out.println("This code is outside of the thread");

}
 public void run() {

System.out.println("This code is running in a thread");

Concurrency Problems
Because threads run at the same time as other parts of the program, there
is no way to know in which order the code will run. When the threads and
main program are reading and writing the same variables, the values are
unpredictable. The problems that result from this are called concurrency
problems.

Example
 A code example where the value of the variable amount is
unpredictable:

class Main extends Thread {

public static int amount = 0;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main thread = new Main();

thread.start();

System.out.println(amount);

amount++;

System.out.println(amount);

public void run() {

 amount++;

To avoid concurrency problems, it is best to share as few attributes

between threads as possible. If attributes need to be shared, one
possible solution is to use the isAlive() method of the thread to check
whether the thread has finished running before using any attributes that
the thread can change.

Example
Use isAlive() to prevent concurrency problems:

public class Main extends Thread {

public static int amount = 0;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Main thread = new Main();

thread.start();

// Wait for the thread to finish

while(thread.isAlive()) {

System.out.println("Waiting...");

// Update amount and print its value

System.out.println("Main: " + amount);

amount++;

System.out.println("Main: " + amount);

}
 public void run() {

amount++;