INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM
💻 Computer Systems Overview
Computers have transformed our world, influencing nearly every aspect of modern life. They
deliver information and services with diligence and efficiency, which is made possible by the
combination of hardware and software.
Hardware: The physical electronic components of a computer (e.g., keyboard, CPU, monitor,
printer).
Software: The recorded instructions and programs that govern the operation of a computer. A
program is a set of instructions that directs the computer to carry out a specific task or achieve a
particular goal.
🧱 Components of a Computer System
A computer system consists of five basic components:
Input Unit: Takes input for the computer via input devices.
Output Unit: Produces output via output devices.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): Processes data and instructions. It is comprised of:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit
Primary Memory: Internal volatile memory for storing data and instructions during processing.
Secondary Storage Unit: External storage devices providing permanent memory.
⚙️ Computer Organization
Computer organization refers to the logical structure of a computer, detailing how its
components are connected, how they affect each other’s functions, and how they contribute to
the computer's overall performance.
Computers generally follow the IPO (Input → Process → Output) principle.
⌨️ Input Unit
The input unit consists of input devices like keyboards, mice, and scanners. It is responsible for
accepting input and converting it into a computer-understandable form (binary code).
An input unit receives both data (on which actions are performed) and instructions (the actions
to be taken), converting them into a digital binary format for processing by the CPU.
Examples of input devices include:
Keyboard: A typewriter-like device for inputting letters, digits, and commands. Braille
keyboards are available for visually challenged individuals.
Mouse: A pointing device that controls a screen pointer.
Microphone (Mic): Converts sound into a digitized format. Requires a sound card.
Scanner: Creates an electronic copy of a printed image.
Bar Code Reader: Uses lasers to read bar codes on products.
Light Pen: A light-sensitive pen-like device used to draw on the screen or make menu
selections.
🖥️ Output Unit
The output unit is composed of output devices that convert electronic binary signals from the
CPU into a human-readable form.
The output unit converts output in binary form to characters, graphics, or audio-visual formats
easily understood by humans.
Popular output devices include:
Monitors: Display information, similar to a television screen, using pixels. Braille monitors are
available for the visually impaired.
Printers: Output information on paper in various forms, such as inkjet, laserjet, and dot matrix.
3D printers can create 3D models.
Speakers: Convert electric current from a sound card into audible sound.
🧠 The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU, also called the "brain" of the computer, guides, directs, controls, and governs the
computer's performance. It includes the following sub-components:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic (+, -, *, /) and logical (<, >, =, <=, >=, !=)
operations.
Control Unit (CU): Supervises and controls all data and information manipulation. It manages
instruction execution, data flow, and operations performed by the ALU and memory.
The CU acts as a supervisor by controlling and guiding operations, controlling instruction
execution, and guiding data flow.
Registers: Small data-holding units used by the CPU to temporarily store important processing
information.
💾 The Memory (Main/Primary)
The memory temporarily stores information and data to facilitate the computer's performance.
Each memory location has a unique address. After a task, the memory is cleared.
The memory of a computer can be thought of as ‘cells’, each broken down into bits (binary
digits, 0 or 1). Combinations of bits store data instructions.
Key points:
Also known as main memory or primary memory.
Volatile, meaning data is lost when power is turned off.
Parts of Main Memory
Random-Access Memory (RAM): Allows random access to memory cells for information
transfer. Data can be read from and written to RAM. Volatile.
Read-Only Memory (ROM): Allows only read operations; data is permanently stored during
manufacturing. Non-volatile, but slower than RAM.
⏳ Cache Memory
Cache memory is a high-speed storage mechanism that can be a reserved section of main
memory, an independent device, or on the CPU chip.
When data is needed, the CPU first checks the cache. If found (a "cache hit"), the CPU avoids
accessing the slower main memory, which speeds up the process.
The effectiveness of cache is judged by its hit rate, with modern systems achieving hit rates
around 95-99%.
💽 Storage Unit (Secondary Memory)
Secondary storage devices are used for storing large amounts of data permanently.
Common storage devices include:
Hard Disks: Store information on magnetic platters. Have high storage capacities (measured in
gigabytes and terabytes).
Compact Disks (CDs) and DVDs: Optical media using lasers for information storage. CDs store
up to 700 MB. DVDs can hold about 15 times more data than a CD and transfer data much
faster.
Portable Flash Memory (Pen Drives): Small, ultra-portable storage devices with solid-state
memory. Data is retained even when the power is off.
Solid-State Drive (SSD): A faster alternative to mechanical hard disks using flash-based
memory.
Blu-Ray Disk: An optical disc format used for high-definition video and data storage. Uses a
blue-violet laser, allowing more data to be packed onto the disc.
🚌 The System Bus
The system bus is an electronic pathway connecting the major components of a computer
system, facilitating data and instruction transfer.
Data Bus: Carries data.
Control Bus: Carries control instructions.
Address Bus: Carries memory addresses.
I/O Bus: Connects input, output, and external devices to the system.
⚙️ Microprocessor Evolution
An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic circuit made from semiconductor material,
containing numerous transistors and logic gates on a single chip.
Name Significance Year Transistors number
SSI (small-scale integration) 1964 1 to 10
MSI (medium-scale integration) 10 to 500
LSI (large-scale integration) 500 to 20,000
VLSI (very-large-scale integration) 20,000 to 1,000,000
ULSI (ultra-large-scale integration) Modern day chips are able to stuff about a million
transistors on a single chip. > 1,000,000
💾 Data Capturing
Data Capturing is performed by the input unit, which enables the conversion of data into a digital
form that a computer can process.
Examples of data capturing:
A keyboard captures textual data.
A mouse captures position data.
Barcode readers capture identification data.
Sensors capture data by sensing changes in temperature, movements, and disturbances.
🗄️ Data Storage
Captured data can be immediately processed or stored for later use using digital storage
devices.
Key considerations for data storage:
Data is generated at very high rates.
Data keeps increasing with time, necessitating more storage space.
Solutions to these issues:
High-speed digital storage devices are used.
Storage devices are periodically upgraded in terms of storage capacity and access speed.
Data Servers: Computers that store large volumes of data.
When upgrading to new technology or higher capacities, old storage devices may become
e-waste, posing an environmental concern.
Important Concern of Discarding Old Storage Devices: The need to completely wipe out the
data stored in discarded storage devices, since the data may be retrievable later.
📤 Data Retrieval
Data Retrieval refers to the process of obtaining data from a storage device and making it
available to the CPU.
Access times are critical in data retrieval. Access times depend on the storage devices. Faster
storage devices have lesser access times.
Solid State Drives (SSDs) have faster access times than hard disks.
💻 Software
A computer system requires both hardware and software for proper functioning. Hardware
consists of the physical components of the computer, while software refers to the set of
programs that govern the operation of a computer system. Without software, a user can't
perform any task on a computer.
Software is classified into two broad categories:
System Software
Application Software
System Software: Software that controls computer hardware.
Application Software: Software that enables users to perform specific tasks.
⚙️ System Software
System software acts as an interface between the application software and the computer
hardware. It manages computer resources and operations.
System software subcategories:
Operating System
Language Processors
System Utilities
Device Drivers
🖥️ Operating System
Operating System (OS): A system program that acts as an interface between a user and the
computer hardware and controls all other components of the computer system.
Primary goal:
Make a computer system convenient to use.
Secondary goal:
Use computer hardware in an efficient manner.
Major components of an OS:
User interface
Memory management
File management
Process management
The OS provides the basic routines for application programs to solve computing problems for
users.
OS vary widely; examples include:
Single user OS
Multiuser OS
Time sharing OS
Real time OS
Examples:
Microsoft Windows
Linux
MacOS
Android OS
🔤 Language Processors
Language Processor: A computer software that can translate source code into object code or
machine code.
Source Code: Program code written by a programmer in a high-level programming language
(HLL).
Object Code: Code usually in machine language or binary code that a computer can understand
easily.
Types of language processors:
Processor Description
Assembler Converts assembly language into machine language.
Interpreter Translates and executes instructions line-by-line.
Compiler Translates and executes instructions in one go, resulting in faster execution.
🛠️ System Utilities
System Utilities: Helpful programs that ensure the smooth functioning of the computer by
performing housekeeping functions.
Examples:
Antivirus Software: Protects a computer system from computer-virus attack.
Examples: Norton Antivirus, Quick Heal Antivirus, Kaspersky Antivirus, McAfee Antivirus
File Management Tools: Assists in tasks like browsing, searching, arranging, finding information,
and quick previewing.
Examples: Windows Explorer, Total Commander, Directory Opus, Google Desktop
Compression Tools: Facilitates the compression of files to take less storage area.
Examples: WinRAR, 7-Zip, PeaZip
Disk Management Tools: Manages data on disks efficiently for increased performance.
Disk Cleanup Tool: Frees the computer from temporary and unnecessary files.
Disk Defragmenter: Minimizes the fragmentation on your disk.
Backup Utility: Facilitates the backing-up of disk information so that in case of any damage or
data-loss, this backed up data may be used.
💽 Device Drivers
Device Drivers (or Drivers): Programs or files that contain sets of instructions for the operating
system detailing how best to operate or drive a certain hardware device.
Each device on a system has its own specific driver. When you add a new device to your
computer, the operating system installs its driver so that the computer knows how to
communicate with the device.
📱 Application Software
Application Software: A set of programs necessary to carry out operations for a specified
application. An Application Software is designed to perform a specific task such as processing
words, creating spreadsheets, managing databases, creating graphics, or browsing the web.
Application software categories:
General Purpose Software
Customized Software
🏢 General Purpose Software
General Purpose Software: Software that can be used for a variety of tasks (word processing,
spreadsheets, database management, etc.).
Since it is not feasible to design specific software to fit every unique user, general-purpose
software packages are used.
Examples:
Word Processing Software
MS-Word
Open Office Writer
Spreadsheets
MS-Excel
OpenOffice Calc
Database Management Systems
MS-Access
MySQL
Desktop Publishing Software
Adobe InDesign
QuarkExpress
Graphics, multimedia, and presentation applications
CorelDraw
Photoshop
PowerPoint
Web browsers
Google Chrome
Mozilla Firefox
Safari
Softcopy: Digital form of data.
Hardcopy: Printed or physical copy of a document.
✂️ Customized Software
Customized Software: Software specially developed by software programmers for an individual
or organization for tasks specific to their needs.
Although standard business software is available, some companies prefer customized software
as per their specific requirements.
⚖️ Proprietary and Free and Open Source Software
Categories of software based on their licensing and freedom to use:
OSS and FLOSS
Proprietary Software
Freeware
Free Software
🔓 OSS and FLOSS
OSS (Open Source Software): Software whose source code is available to customers and can
be modified and redistributed without any limitation.
OSS may be free or have nominal charges for development and support.
FLOSS (Free Libre and Open Source Software/Free Livre and Open Source Software):
Software that is both free software and open source software.
Examples of FLOSS:
Linux OS
BOSS Linux
MySQL
OpenOffice.org software
🔒 Proprietary Software
Proprietary Software: Software that is neither open nor freely available.
Its use is regulated through a license, and modification/distribution is either forbidden or requires
special permission. The source code is not available.
Examples:
Microsoft Windows OS
Adobe Premier Pro
Other Adobe software
Quick Heal Antivirus
🆓 Freeware
Freeware: Software available free of cost that allows copying and distribution but not
modification, and whose source code is not available.
Freeware is distributed in binary form without any licensing fee. It is often used in marketing
situations to sell additional products and to gain market advantages.
Freeware and Free Software are different things.
🎁 Free Software
Free Software: Software that grants users the freedom to use, study, change, and distribute
copies of the software and to distribute modified versions.
