Chapter 2 Energy and Matter

Study Goals Energy Energy and Nutrition Temperature conversions Specific heat States of matter

Changes of states

Energy and Heat

Living system needs energy to do work:
- for example, energy is needed for the heart to pump blood and keep the circulatory system in constant motion; the lungs to move air in and out of the respiratory system and keep gas exchange continuous; and the digestive system to move and digest foods autonomously after we eat a meal. Because our body continually uses energy to remain alive, it feels continually warm as a result of energy being generated and consumed at a certain rate (basal metabolic rate). The major form of energy that the body uses and generates is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a chemical substance that stores energy in the form of high-energy phosphate bonds.

The warmth we feel in our body and in our skin is the result of this energy being used to keep the cells in our body alive. However, not all of that energy is being converted with 100% efficiency into cellular work, and some of that energy is released as radiated heat that warms the body.

Heat
At the macroscopic level, we feel heat as something being warm relative to something being cold. - at the molecular level, heat is associated with motion of molecules. That is, the molecules of a substance are in constant motion and are said to have certain amount of thermal energy. When a substance warms, the motion or vibration of the molecules that make up that substance also increases. By converse, when the substance cools, the vibration of its molecules also slows. Thus, the temperature of matter is a direct measure of the motion of the molecules the greater the motion, the higher the temperature. At absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin, the lowest possible temperature), all molecular vibration comes to a standstill, and the substance is said to no longer have any thermal energy.

 So, energy that is associated with motion of particles is HEAT. The more energy matter has, the higher temperature it will also have. Heat loss or gain by matter is equivalent to energy loss or gain. - in chemistry, heat is commonly measured in unit of calorie.

Definition: 1 calorie (cal) = amount of heat needed to raise exactly 1 g of water by 1C. - the System International (SI) unit for heat is the Joule (J): 1 cal = 4.18 J
We can now ask the following question: by how much will the temperature of an object increase or decrease with the gain or loss of heat energy ? The answer is given by the specific heat of the object.

Specific Heat
All substances absorb energy, but some absorb energy more readily than others. That is, every substance has its own characteristic ability to absorb heat. Some susbtances must absorb more heat than others to reach a certain temperature. These energy requirements for different substances are described in terms of a property called specific heat.

Definition: the specific heat (SH) of a substance is the amount of heat (calories or joules) needed to raise the temperature of 1 g

of that substance by 1C.

Amount of heat (cal or J) Specific Heat =
(SH)

Heat = Mass x T

1 g substance x 1C

- by rearranging the above equation, one obtains a general equation that allows calculation of the heat gained or lost by a substance when its mass and the initial and final temperatures are known:

Heat = Mass x T x SH

Substances
Aluminum (Al) Copper (Cu) Gold (Au) Iron (Fe) Silver (Ag) Ammonia (gas)

Cal / gC
0.214 0.0920 0.0308 0.108 0.056 0.488

J / gC
0.897 0.385 0.129 0.450 0.235 2.04

The Specific Heats of Some Common Substances

Ethanol (liquid)
Sodium chloride (solid) Water (liquid)

0.588
0.207 1.00

2.46
0.864 4.184

A substance with a low specific heat will heat up faster as compared to one with a higher specific heat under the same conditions. As a result, less energy is needed to raise a low-specific-heat substance to a given temperature as to raise a high-specific-heat substance to the same temperature. In other words, a low-specific-heat substance will reach a higher temperature when infused with the same amount of heat (calories) than a high-specifc-heat substance will. - note that the specific heat of a substance depends on its physical state whether solid, liquid, or gas. That is, the specific heat of a substance changes as a substance undergoes a phase change. Ex: SH of H2Oice = 2.06 J/gC; SH of H2Oliquid = 4.184 J/gC; SH of H2Osteam = 1.92 J/gC

The Meaning of Specific Heat

Raising 1 g of copper by 1C requires 0.092 calorie.

Raising 1 g of liquid water by 1C requires 1.00 calorie.

Since it takes over 10 times more heat (1.00 cal / 0.092 cal = 10.8) to heat the water, infusion of the same amount of heat (say, 1 cal) into 1 gram each of these substances will cause the copper to reach a temperature that would be over 10 times higher than that of the water. - note that metals tend to have low specific heats, thus they are good heat conductors and therefore poor heat insulators. - by comparison, water has very high specific heat. The high specific heat of water makes it an ideal substance in our body to help absorb or release large amounts of heat, thereby causing less fluctuations in body temperature (i.e. think of the ocean whose water remains a constant temperature even though surface air is cycled between warm days and cool nights).

A Demonstration of the Specific Heat Capacity of Water: One paper cup is filled with water; the other is empty. When the cups are placed above a lit Bunsen burner, the empty cup burns, whereas the water-filled cup does not. This is because the water absorbs most of the heat of the flame due to its high specific heat.

The filling of an apple pie has a higher specific heat than the pie crust or wrapper. As a result, large amount of heat is retained in the filling after the pie is removed from the oven even though the crust may appear cool to the touch. The warning on the label alerts the consumer to the high heat that may be retained in the filling.

Calculations Using Specific Heats

Knowing the specific heat of a substance, we can calculate the heat gain or loss by the substance as it undergoes a change in temperature (T = Tfinal Tinitial). - the heat gain or loss is given by the formula:

Heat gain or loss = Mass x T x Specific Heat

(calories) (g) (C) ( cal ) g x C

Sample Problems Of Heat Calculations:

1. How many calories must be added to warm 45 g of Water from 12C 76C ?
2. How many calories must be added to warm 45 g of Copper from 12C 76C ? 3. If the same amount of heat is supplied to samples of 10.0 g each of Iron (0.108 cal/gC), Aluminum (0.214 cal/gC), and Copper (0.0920 cal/gC) all at 15C initially, which sample would reach the highest temperature ? 4) A 15-g sample of Gold cools from 95.0C 23.0C. What is the heat loss (in calories) ?

Potential and Kinetic Energy

Energy is defined as the ability to do work and can be classified into potential energy
and kinetic energy.

1) potential energy is stored energy. 2) kinetic energy is the energy that is in motion.

The potential energy of water stored in the dammed reservoir is converted to kinetic energy as it flows downhill. This kinetic energy is harvested to drive a turbine to generate electricity at a hydroelectric power plant.

Kinetic or Potential Energy ?

1) kicking a ball 2) an earthquake 3) a tightly wound spring 4) a roller-coaster climbing up a ramp

Which of the following represents a correct description of the energy change that actually occurs ?
(a) Gas burned in a furnace is an example of kinetic energy being converted to thermal energy. (b) An athlete exercising is an example of mechanical energy being converted to heat energy. (c) Gasoline burned in an automobile is an example of chemical energy being converted to potential energy. (d) An electrical fan which is running is an example of electrical energy being converted to mechanical energy.

Energy and Nutrition

In nutrition, the caloric values are commonly expressed as kilocalories per gram of food. The caloric values for the 3 major types of foods that we eat are:

Caloric Values

- carbohydrate - protein - fat

4 kcal/g 4 kcal/g 9 kcal/g

- note that fat has more than 2X as many calories as carbohydrate or protein. Instead of using kilocalories, which is a large unit, in nutrition the term Calorie (with capital C) means:

1 Cal = 1 kcal = 1000 calories

- remember that 1 Calorie (capital C) when applied to nutrition means 1000 calories or 1 kcal (small c).
Sample Problem: How many kilocalories are there in a piece of chocolate cake that contains 35 g carbo, 10 g fat, and 5 g protein ?

The Bomb Calorimeter

The number of calories in a particular food can be determined by placing a sample of the food in a bomb calorimeter, which is an insulated device that consists of a steel container (i.e. the bomb) surrounded by a known volume of water. Ignition wire and oxygen gas placed inside the steel container cause the food to burn and release heat. The heat warms the surrounding water and increases the water's temperature. - from the change in temperature (T) and the amount of water being warmed, one can calculate the heat in kilocalories released as a result of the Combustion burning of the food; this is then the caloric content of the food.
in bomb calorimeter

Problem 1: A 1.00-g sample of ordinary table sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) is burned in a bomb calorimeter. The temperature of 1.50 x 103 g of water in the calorimeter rises from 25.00C to 27.32C. The specific heat of the water is 1.00 cal/gC. Calculate the caloric content (in Cal) per gram of sucrose. Problem 2: When a 2.00 g sample of the rocket fuel hydrazine, N2H4, is burned in a bomb calorimeter which contains 1200 g of water, the temperature rises from 24.62C to 31.70C. What is the heat generated (in kJ) per gram N2H4 ?

Temperature Scales
To convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius units, one uses the equation:

F = 1.8 (C) + 32
- the number 32 is added to adjust the freezing point on the Celsius scale (OC) to 32F freezing point on the Fahrenheit scale. By converse, knowing the degree in Fahrenheit, one can convert it to Celsius by rearranging the equation:

C = F 32 1.8

Note that 1 degree kelvin = 1 degree Celsius

Kelvin Temperature and the Absolute Zero

The Kelvin temperature scale is adopted in the System International unit for temperature. It starts at 0 K, which is called the absolute zero where all motion at the molecular level ceases to exist. Because atoms are at a standstill, there is no kinetic energy of moving molecules and the temperature can not go any lower. This absolute zero point is used a reference in the Kelvin temperature scale. - the Kelvin unit is expressed simply as capital K without any degree () symbol. Because it starts at 0 K and go up from there, there is no negative numbers in the Kelvin temperature scale. At 0C, the Kelvin scale shows 273 K; at 100C, the Kelvin scale indicates 373 K. Hence, as in degree Celsius scale, between the freezing point and boiling point of water there are 100 degrees Kelvin, which makes a Kelvin equal a Celsius unit: 1 K = 1C - the relationship between Kelvin and Celsius units is given in the formula:

K = C + 273

Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) devised the absolute temperature scale and formulated the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.

States of Matter
Matters that we see or feel around us exist in three physical states solid, liquid, and gas.

Solids have definite shape. Their atoms or

molecules are held tightly together in fixed positions. Although they don't move around past one another, they do vibrate slowly in their position. Many solids are held in a crystal structure such as seen in quartz and amethyst.

Carbon atoms locked in a crystal solid structure.

Quartz consists of SiO2 held in a crystal structure.

Solid wooden cube structures

States Of Matters Liquids

Liquids, by contrast, are fluid because their molecules are
not held rigidly to one another. Liquid molecules do interact with one another via various forces such as H-bonding and dipole-dipole forces, but the interactions between molecules of a liquid are weak enough to allow them to break off and reform continuously, allowing the liquid to flow and to take the shape of a new container. The vibrations of liquid molecules are also stronger than those of a solid.

States Of Matters Gases

Gases consist of molecules that move at high speeds past one another, which create great distances between gas molecules. Gases have no definite shape and volume of their own and expand to fill the shape of any container that holds Because great distance exists between gas particles, gases them.

are compressible.

Summary of Some Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Property Shape Volume

Solid
Has a definite shape Has a definite volume

Liquid
Takes the shape of the container Has a definite volume Random, close

Gas
Takes the shape of the container Fills the volume of the container Random, far apart

Arrangement Fixed, very close of particles Interaction between particles Very strong

Strong

Essentially none

Movement of particles Examples

Very slow Ice, salt, iron

Moderate Water, oil, vinegar

Very fast Water vapor, helium, air

A Change of State: Ice Melting

When an ice cube is left out at room temperature, it will start to melt. Melting occurs because the water molecules held rigidly in an ice crystal have gained sufficient kinetic energy to start vibrating stronger and began sliding past one another, thus forming a liquid state. The temperature at which a solid begins to turn liquid is called its melting point. - by contrast, when heat is removed as the temperature of a liquid is lowered, the kinetic energy is lost and the particles slow down to the point where the attractive forces begin to lock them into a crystal structure the substance is undergoing freezing. A liquid changes to a solid at its

freezing point, which is the same temperature as the melting point.

Every substance has its own melting (freezing) point. Examples of melting points of some substances are:
Melting Point (C)
ICE MELTING

Water Gold Liquid nitrogen

0 1064 210

Heat of Fusion in Melting and Freezing

During the melting phase, the energy that goes into turning ice into liquid water is called the heat of fusion.

Water has heat of fusion = 80 cal/g (i.e. 80 cal are

needed to melt 1 gram of ice into liquid water at its melting point of 0C). - the heat of fusion is also the heat that must be removed to freeze 1 gram of liquid water into ice at its freezing point of 0C. Note that the temperature of freezing point is the same as that of melting point.

freezing

When water freezes, it releases heat to the surroundings which causes the ambient temperature to increase. This principle is applied to protect fruit orchards in freezing weather. - for example, water is sometimes sprayed in fruit orchards during very cold weather. If the air temperature drops to 0C, the water begins to freeze. Heat is released as the water molecules form ice crystals. The released heat warms ambient air and keeps it above freezing point, thereby protecting the Orchard spraying for frost protection. fruit.

Calculations Involving Heat of Fusion

To calculate the heat needed to melt a sample of ice, multiply the mass of the ice by its heat of fusion. Note that there is no temperature change during melting (or freezing) phase because temperature remains constant in the ice/water mixture.

Heat (to melt or freeze) = mass x heat of fusion

(cal) (g) 80 cal/g (for H2O)

1) Ice cubes at 0C with a total mass of 26 g are added to a cup of soft drink. a. How much heat (in cal) must be absorbed to melt all the ice at 0C ? b. What happens to the temperature of the soft drink ?

2) Calculate the heat that must be removed at 0C to freeze 225 g of water.

Boiling and Condensation

When a puddle of water slowly disappears in fair weather, the process of evaporation is taking place as water molecules with sufficient energy escape from the liquid phase and enter the gas phase.

boiling
Similarly, when a liquid is heated, its molecules increasingly gain more kinetic energy and move faster. As the liquid reaches its boiling point, molecules throughout the bulk of the liquid gain sufficient energy to become vaporized, forming bubbles that rise to the surface where they burst and release the gas. - for water, the normal boiling point temperature at sea level (i.e. 1 atmosphere pressure) is 100C. At its boiling point, water undergoes a phase change during which liquid water turns into gaseous water (steam).

 In a reverse process, water molecules in the gas phase cool, lose kinetic energy and slow down. The attractive forces between the water molecules become stronger and they undergo the process of condensation as water vapor is converted back into liquid. (For ex, condensation occurs when warm water vapor in a hot shower forms water droplets when it comes in contact with the cool surface of a mirror). Because a substance loses heat to the surroundings as it condenses, the ambient temperature (i.e. the surroundings) becomes warmer. This is why when a rainstorm is approaching, we notice a warming of the air as gaseous water molecules release heat and condense into rain.

condensation

Heat of Vaporization
The heat of vaporization is the amount of energy needed to vaporize a sample of liquid into gas at its boiling point.
The heat of vaporization of water is 540 cal/g (i.e. 540 calories are needed to turn 1 gram of liquid water into steam at its boiling point of 100C). - by converse, when 1 gram of gaseous water condenses, the heat of vaporization (540 cal/g) is the amount of energy that must be removed. The amount of heat needed to vaporize (or condense) a sample of water is calculated using the equation:

Heat = mass x heat of vaporization

- as in melting/freezing phase change, no temperature change occurs during the change of state in vaporization/condensation.

Problem 1: In a sauna, 150 g of water is turned into steam at 100C. How many kilocalories of heat are needed ? Problem 2: Calculate the heat released at 100C when 10 g of steam (gaseous water) condenses into liquid.

Burn Caused by Boiling Water vs Burn Caused by Steam

Both steam and boiling water occur at 100C. When steam or boiling water falls on a persons skin, it cools to body temperature at 37C. The heat released during cooling burns the skin. Which burn is more damaging burn by steam or burn by boiling water ? - for illustration, let us calculate the amount of heat released when 25 g of boiling water at 100C cools to skin temperature at 37C and compare it to the heat released when 25 g of steam undergoes similar process. Problem 1: Calculate the heat released when 25 g of boiling water at 100C

cools to skin temperature at 37C.

Problem 2: Calculate the heat released when 25 g of steam at 100C condenses and cools to skin temperature at 37C.

Sublimation of Iodine

Iodine is a deep purple solid that sublimes easily especially upon heating.

During sublimation, a substance changes from a solid to a gas without first changing to a liquid. Very few chemicals sublimate; those that do include iodine, arsenic, zinc chloride, and dry ice (CO2).

Freeze Drying A Sublimation Process

Some substances that do not sublime at atmospheric pressure can be made to do so at low pressures. This is the principle of freeze-drying of foods, during which a food that has been frozen is placed in a vacuum chamber where it dries as the ice sublimes at very low pressures. The dried food retains all its nutritional values and needs only water to be edible. A food that is

freeze-dried does not need refrigeration because bacteria cannot grow without moisture.

Commercial freeze-dryers

Heating Curve and Cooling Curve of Water

The changes of state when a substance undergoes melting / freezing or boiling / condensation can be illustrated visually as a diagram called a heating or cooling curve. On such a diagram, the temperature is shown on the vertical axis and the addition/removal of heat on the horizontal axis.

Melting Point of Water

Melting Point (0C): ice water (endothermic, isothermal or constant temperature) Heat of fusion of water: 80 cal / g

Freezing Point (0C): water ice (exothermic, constant temperature)

During melting/freezing phase transition, the temperature remains constant.

Boiling Point of Water

Boiling Point (100C): water steam (endothermic, isothermal or constant temperature) Heat of vaporization of water: 540 cal / g Condensation Point (100C): steam water (exothermic, constant temperature) During boiling/condensation phase transition, the temperature remains constant

Calculations Involving Heating/Cooling

Problem 1: Calculate the total amount of heat absorbed when 25 g of ice at 0C is warmed to 50C. Problem 2: Calculate the total heat absorbed when 25 g of ice at 0C is converted into steam. Problem 3: Calculate the total amount of heat released when 40 g of steam is condensed to liquid water at 65C. Problem 4: Calculate the total amount of heat released when 40 g of steam is converted to ice at 0C.

Chapter 2 Review Problems

1) A 25-g sample of an alloy at 98C is placed in 50 g water at 15C. If the final temperature reached by the alloy sample and water is 27C, what is the specific heat (cal/gC) of the alloy ? 2) Ice cubes at 0C with a total weight of 50 g are added to a cup of water at 10C. All of the ice melts and the temperature of the water decreases to 0C. How many grams of water were in the sample ?

3) If we add 450 calories of heat to 37 g of ethanol (sp heat = 0.59 cal/gC) at 20C,
what is the final temperature ? 4) Heat in the amount of 205 cal is used to warm 50 g of an unknown substance at 25C to a final temperature at 32C. What is the specific heat of the unknown substance ?