Chapter 2 – Heat

The transfer of thermal energy from one body to another by difference in temperature
is called heating. The heat flow between two objects depends on their temperatures.
If you touch a hot stove, energy will enter your hand from the stove because the stove
is warmer than your hand. But if you touch ice, energy will pass out of your hand and into the
colder ice. The direction of spontaneous energy is always from a warmer substance to a cooler
substance. The energy that transfers from one object to another because of temperature
difference between them is called heat.
The word heat can be used to refer to the energy that is transferred between two
objects before they reach thermal equilibrium. This should be distinguished from the energy
that is possessed internally by all objects. We refer to the internal energy as thermal energy.
In other words, you can think of thermal energy as the energy that is contained in an object.
Heat can be considered as any energy that is added or removed from the object. Thus, when
heating occurs, the thermal energy of a body is either increased or decreased.
The word heat can be used to refer to the energy that is transferred between two
objects before they reach thermal equilibrium. This should be distinguished from the energy
that is possessed internally by all objects. We refer to the internal energy as thermal energy.
In other words, you can think of thermal energy as the energy that is contained in an object.
Heat can be considered as any energy that is added or removed from the object. Thus, when
heating occurs, the thermal energy of a body is either increased or decreased.
In this module, we will firstly look at the units used in the measurement of heat. These
units are used in a variety of contexts and it is worthwhile that we identify these units as well
as the methods of conversion which is the main emphasis.
And, we will be dealing with heat capacity and the heat equation. This is also one of
the main parts of our study on heat. In this part we look at how to calculate the amount of
energy used in the process of changing the temperature of a substance.

Lesson 1 – Heat
Introduction
The word heat can be used to refer to the energy that is transferred between two
objects before they reach thermal equilibrium. This should be distinguished from the energy
that is possessed internally by all objects. We refer to the internal energy as thermal energy.
In other words, you can think of thermal energy as the energy that is contained in an object.
Heat can be considered as any energy that is added or removed from the object. Thus, when
heating occurs, the thermal energy of a body is either increased or decreased.

Learning Outcomes:

• describe the various units for measuring heat including the conversion between these
units;
• explain and apply the concepts of heat capacity, specific heat capacity, latent heat and
specific latent heat capacities of various substances.
• calculate the amount of heat using the heat equation, latent heat equations and
combinations of both changes in state and temperature of substances.
Lesson Proper (4A’s)

1. Activity

SPECIFIC HEAT
I. Objective:
Determine the specific heat of aluminum
II. Materials
Aluminum foil/sheet thermometer 250ml beaker/glass calorimeter stove
Casserole/boiler Scoop/dipper measuring cup

III. Procedure
a. Fill a dipper with a known mass of aluminum shot.
b. Insert a thermometer into the shot. Record the amount of shot and its initial
temperature in the table below.
c. Put the dipper into a boiler/casserole containing boiling water.
d. When the temperature stops rising (at about 100°C), record the thermometer
reading.
e. Pour 250 ml of cold water into a beaker or glass and record the temperature of water.
Quickly pour the shots into the water. Mix gently and record the final temperature of
aluminum and water – that is the final temperature of the mixture.

Mass Initial Temp. Final Temp.

Aluminum
Water 250ml
Specific heat
True value (of Experimental value
Aluminum)

The specific heat of aluminum is defined as the amount of heat (no. of calories) lost or
gained when the temperature of one gram is lowered or raised one degree Celsius.
Specific heat = no. of cal/g-°C

You can find this value by dividing the total number of calories lost by the shot by the
product of the mass and temperature change of the shot.

f. Follow the information and the definition of specific heat given above. Calculate the
specific heat of aluminum shot.
2. Analysis
a. Explain how the law of conservation of energy and the law of heat exchange are
essentially the same?

b. If you spill some water while stirring the mixture, how will your results be affected?

c. What are some sources of error for this activity?

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3. Abstraction

Heat Units

There are several units used in the measurement of heat as a quantity.

Units for heat

The three (3) units commonly used to measure heat are:

1. Calorie;
2. BTU; and
3. Joule.

1 Calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1

gram of water by 1°C. The kilocalorie (kcal) is a unit that is
often used.
BTU stands for British Thermal Unit where 1 BTU is the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water by 1°F.
 Joule is the SI unit for measurement of energy.

Conversions between heat units:

1. To convert from Calories to Joules, the conversion factor is:

1 calorie = 4.2 Joules
2. To convert from BTU to Joule, the conversion factor is:
1 BTU = 1 055 Joules

Example 6
1 serving of butter is said to contain 1900 kcal of energy. How much energy is this in
Joule and in BTU?

Solution
In this question we are simply converting the amount of energy already given in
kilocalories to Joules and BTU.

From kcal to Joule

1900kcal = 1 900 000cal x 4.2J/cal = 7 980 000J
From Joule to BTU
7 980 000𝐽
7 980 000J = 055𝐽 = 7 563.98BTU
1𝐵𝑇𝑈

Heat Capacity & Specific Heat Capacity

Equal amounts of heat applied to equal masses of different substances tend to produce
unequal temperature rise. This is a common observation in cooking for instance. If we heat
the same amount of cooking oil and water in the same type of saucepan with same amount of
heat, we will find that the temperature of water will be lower than that of cooking oil. This
observation can be explained by the concept of heat capacity.

Heat capacity

If we apply 1000J of energy to 100g of copper and 100g water, which one do you think
will have the higher temperature?
This question can only be answered if we know how well each of these two substances
is capable of absorbing energy. The ability of a substance to absorb and release heat is known
as heat capacity.
Heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat gained (or lost) by a substance for a
change in temperature of 1°C.
To calculate heat capacity (C) we use the following equation:

𝑄
C=
Δ𝑇
C is the heat capacity in Joules per degree Celsius (J/°C), Q is the amount of thermal
energy in Joules and ΔT is the temperature in degree Celsius.

Example 7
When 5 400J of thermal energy is added to a steel frying pan, the approximate change
is temperature is 30°C. What is the heat capacity of the steel frying pan?
Solution
The amount of energy added (Q) is 5 400J while the change in temperature (ΔT) of
the frying pan is 30°C.

𝑄
C=
Δ𝑇
5400 𝐽
C=
30℃
C = 180 J°C-1

The heat capacity of the steel frying pan tells us that it requires 180J of energy to
increase the temperature by 1°C. The heat capacity of an object depends on the type of
substance it is made of and its mass. The steel frying pan given in the above example would
have a different heat capacity from an identical frying pan with the same mass but is made
from copper.

Heat capacity must not be confused with heat conduction. A substance with a high
heat capacity tends to absorb large amounts of energy to reach a temperature change of 1°C
while a substance with a high heat conduction is able to transfer heat at a faster rate. The
difference here is that heat capacity is not dependent on time whereas heat conduction is
dependent on time.

Specific heat capacity

The concept of specific heat capacity (c) takes the idea of heat capacity one step
further. Take note that specific heat capacity (c) and heat capacity (C) are two different
quantities.

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy that 1 kg of a

substance gains (or loses) in order for a change in temperature of 1°C to occur.

Notice that specific heat capacity includes the mass of the substance as well. The unit
for specific heat capacity is Joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg°C).

The relationship between heat capacity (C) and specific heat capacity (c) is given by
the equation below:
C = mc
Given the heat capacity of a substance we can determine the mass of a substance by
using this relationship between heat capacity and specific heat capacity.

Example 8
Determine the mass of the steel frying pan in Example 7 if the specific heat capacity
of steel is 450 J/kg°C.

Solution
From example 7, C = 180J/°C while c = 450J/kg°C

𝐶
m=
𝑐
180𝐽/℃
m=
450𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃
m = 0.40kg
 The table below shows the specific heat capacities of some substances at 25oC and
atmospheric pressure.

Table 3 Specific Heat Capacity of some substances at 25oC and atmospheric

Pressure

Example 9
A 1.5kg brass saucepan is heated on an open fire until it reaches a temperature of
250°C. If the specific heat capacity of brass is 380J/kg°C, what is the heat capacity of this
saucepan?

Solution
C = mc
C = 1.5kg x 380J/kg0C
C = 570J/0C

Heat Equation

The heat equation allows us to determine the amount of thermal energy that is
gained or lost (Q) to change the temperature of an object.

This amount of thermal energy is proportional to the mass of the object m and the
temperature change (ΔT). This is expressed in the equation:
Q = mcΔT
Where c is the specific heat capacity of the substance, and is defined as the amount
of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1°C. Unit for specific
heat capacity is Joule per kilogram per degree celsius (J/kg°C).
Example 10
How much energy is required to raise the temperature of 20kg of iron from 10°C to
90°C given that ciron = 450 J/kg°C?

Solution

Q = mcΔT
Q = 20kg x 450J/kg0C x (900C – 100C)
Q = 720 000J

The amount of energy is also equivalent if the 20kg iron in the example had cooled
from 90°C to 10°C. That is the equation is valid for increase or decrease in thermal energy,
with a corresponding increase or decrease in temperature.

Example 11
Water has a specific heat capacity of 4186J/kg°C. 125 000J of energy is given off by
a mass of water when it cools from 100°C to 25°C. What is the mass of water that has
cooled?

Solution
To find the mass of water, we must rearrange the heat equation and make m the
subject.
𝑄
m=
𝑐∆𝑇
125580𝐽
m=
4186𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ 𝑥 (100℃−25℃)
m = 0.398kg

4. Application

Read and answer the following questions accordingly on the spaces provided.

1. Express the following energy values in calories and BTU.

Energy (Joules) Energy (Calories) Energy (BTU)
a) 500J
b) 2500J
c) 198000J
d) 800kJ
e) 1.2MJ

2. Explain the difference between heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
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3. 100g of copper is heated so that it experiences a 130°C rise in temperature.

 a) Given that copper has a specific heat capacity (c) of 387J/kg°C, find the amount
of heat energy added.

b) If we double the mass of copper, how would this affect the amount of energy
needed to heat copper with the same temperature rise?
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4. Lead has a specific heat capacity (c) of approximately 130J/kg°C. A sample of

lead has a heat capacity (C) of 975J. Its temperature was decreased by 60°C.
a) What is the mass (in kg) of the lead sample?

b) How much energy has been removed from the lead sample in this decrease
in temperature?
5. Assessment

A. Solve the following problems and write your solution on the space provided.

1. How much heat is necessary to raise the temperature of 1000 g of ethanol from
20°C to 80°C? The specific heat of ethanol is 0.750 cal/g-°C.

2. If 25 kJ is necessary to raise the temperature of a block from 25ºC to 30ºC, how

much heat is necessary to heat the block from 45ºC to 50ºC?

3. A 900g brass at 100°C is dropped into a 2.27 kg of water at 1.6°C. When mixed,
the equilibrium temperature is 5.1°C. Find the specific heat of brass.

B. Convert the following (Show your solution on the space provided):

1. 350 J to __________ BTU
2. 1500 J to __________ BTU
3. 100 J to __________ Calories
4. 700kJ to __________ Calories
5. 8MJ to __________ Calories