Starting solutions

Can you think of any examples of solutions that you

use everyday?
How do you know they are solutions?

Now, what is a solution? A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Homogeneous refers to the fact that the composition of the solution is the same throughout think one composition

This means that any sample or aliquot, of any amount, taken from anywhere the solution will have the same composition

Parts of a solution
Lets consider of a salt water solution and identify the parts

of the solution:

The solvent in the substance present in the greatest amount

in the solution we often refer to it as the substance into which something else is dissolved

When the solvent of a solution is water, we refer to the solution as an aqueous solution (think aqueous, aqua which is Latin for water) In the case of the salt water solution, water is the solvent

The solute is the substance that is dissolved in the solution In the case of the salt water solution, salt is the solute

Think back to the examples of solutions you came up with

for the last slide

Identify the solute and solvent of each solution

Types of solutions
State of Solute Solvent Examples

Gas

Liquid

Solid

Solubility
In Unit 2 we talked about various compounds being soluble in water or in other

solutions

What do we mean when we say something is soluble?

Solubility is maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a particular temperature We usually use 100mL of water at 20C We can think of it as the ability of a solute to dissolve in a certain amount of solvent at a particular temperature We call two substances that can mix together or can be dissolved, miscible Conversely, when two substances cannot be mixed, we refer to them as immiscible

Can you think of examples of miscible substances? Can you think of examples of immiscible substances?

We tend to classify solutes based on based on how much will dissolve in 100mL of

water

If more than 1g of solute can dissolve in 100mL of water, the solute is considered

soluble If between 0.1g and 1g of solute can dissolve in 100mL of water, the solute is considered slightly soluble If less than 0.1g of solute will dissolve in 100mL of water, the solute is considered insoluble

Keep in mind that nothing is really insoluble most anything will dissolve to some extent, but we call things insoluble if very little is able to dissolve

Stuff in solution
We can also classify solutions based on how much solute

they contain
An unsaturated solution is one that can dissolve more of the

same solute think of a sponge that can take up more water A saturated solution is one that cannot dissolve more of the same solute think of a sponge that cannot take up any more water A supersaturated solution is one that contains more solute than a saturated solution at the temperature think of a saturated sponge that is cooled

In groups of 4 you will act out 1 of each of the

abovementioned types of solutions

Homework
Pg. 358 #1-7, 10-15

Why do things dissolve?

Consider salt dissolving in water: What is happening, at the molecular level The solute (salt) particles are breaking apart, and are becoming attracted to solvent (water) particles

What can we say about the attractive forces between the solute and solvent particles, since we know that salt does indeed dissolve in water?

As you can imagine, substances have a range of solubilities, that

is, abilities to dissolve

Why? On what does the solubility of a solute depend?

We need to think about the particles within a solution: the particles of solvent and solute

How can they interact to affect solubility?

Solubility depends on the relative strength of the following factors:

Forces that attract particles of solute to each other Forces that attract particles of the solute to particles of the solvent Forces that attract particles of the solvent to each other

The universal solvent

Water is sometimes called the universal solvent Because of waters polarity, it can dissolve a wide variety of solutes

Where are the poles in a water molecule? The O-H bond of water is highly polar, with the O being the negative pole and H being the positive pole What type of bond is an O-H bond? The O-H bond is an H (hydrogen) bond, which is very strong

Life as we know it would not exist, or continue, if water

were not such a good solvent!

Solubility the nitty gritty

Weve talked about what solubility is and how it happens, in a general sense, but now we are going to look at the solubility of the following types of compounds at the molecular level: Ionic compounds Molecular compounds Polar compounds

Solubility of ionic compounds

Knowing what you know about the polarity of water, how might we explain

how ionic compounds dissolve?

The positive and negative poles of the water molecule attract the oppositely

charged ions of an ionic solute, and cause them to move away from each other and thus dissolve The water molecules surround each ion, with each pole facing the oppositely charge ion of the solute, and surround the ion in a process called hydration Sometimes ionic compounds do not dissolve in water How might we explain this, thinking about attractive forces between ions and the ions and water molecules?

If the attractive forces between the ions in an ionic compound are stronger than those between the ions and the poles of the water molecules, the ionic compound will not dissolve

In a chemical equation, how do we represent an ionic compound that is

dissolved?

We use the subscript (aq), meaning aqueous or dissolved in water this

indicates that ions are separated, but distributed evenly, in solution

Hydration
Notice how the positive

and negative ends of the water attract the oppositely charged ends of the ionic compound molecules
This is how dissolving

or hydration - happens!

Solubility of molecular compounds

Recall that molecular compounds can have dipoles due to EN Since water is polar, the more polar a molecular compound is, the easier

it is for it to dissolve in water

Depending on the magnitude (amount) of the EN (which dictates polarity

in a molecule), the attractive forces between the particles in the compound may be weaker or stronger than the attractive forces between the particles and the water molecules

Molecular compounds that are polar can dissolve in water if the attractive forces between the particles and water are stronger than those between the particles of the compound itself

What are some examples of molecular compounds that will dissolve in water? What are some examples of molecular compounds that will not dissolve in water?

As you may remember, some molecular compounds do not dissolve in

water

How might you explain this?

The atoms of slightly polar covalent, and non-polar covalent compounds share electrons in order to complete their individual octets They have no poles, and as such nothing with which to attract the oppositely charged ends of a water molecule

This means that the particles will stay together, and away from water

Molecular compounds in water

Notice how the attractive

forces the particles of the molecular compound are holding the compound together
The attractive forces between

the water molecule and the particles of the molecular compound are not as strong, and as such it will not break apart

Note that whether or not a

molecular compound will dissolve will depend on how polar the compound is

Solubility of polar compounds

Again, knowing what you know about the polarity of

water, what can you say about the solubility of polar compounds in water?
Recall that dipole-dipole forces are weaker than H-

bonding forces

This means that the attractive forces between the water molecules and the particles of the polar compound will be stronger that the attraction between the particles of the compound

Seeing solubility

So, ionic or molecular?

What is the best way to determine if a compound is

ionic or molecular? (Think back to the labs we did about molecular and ionic compounds)
Conductivity is the best way to determine if a compound

is molecular or ionic

Which type of compound is conductive, and which is not? Ionic compounds dissociate in water, and are able to carry electrical charge passing through the solution Molecular compounds do not dissociate, remain neutral in charge and as such cannot carry charge

Predicting solubility
So, we know how to distinguish ionic and molecular

compounds from each other

But how do we predict solubility of ionic compounds?
Factor Description Affect on Solubility Example
F1- and O2-: since O has twice the charge of F, an oxide has a stronger bond than an fluoride with the same cation AgCl vs. AgI: AgI is more soluble than AgCl because I- is a larger than Cl-

Ion Charge

Charges on each ion in an ionic compound affect whether or not the compound is soluble

The greater the charge of an ion, the stronger the ionic bond and the less soluble the compound will be Compounds with larger ions are usually more soluble than those with smaller ions. The larger the ion, the greater the distance between charges, the easier it is to pull the ion out of its compound

Ion Size

Solubility increases with increasing ion size

Solubility rules revisited

Weve already talked about solubility rules for ionic

compounds (ie. solubility table)

But now that we know how to predict solubility of ionic

compounds, we can explain how the solubility rules were created

The solubility rules take into account ion size and ion charge, and list the solubilities of various anion and cation combinations

More predicting solubility

Molecule size is the significant factor in predicting solubility

of molecular compounds
The greater the size, the less soluble the compound is

Think of walking through a crowded mall with your friends Imagine you are walking with your arms linked: the larger your group is, the more difficult it will be for you to pass through the crowds If you were walking through the mall by yourself, or with a smaller group, it is easier to move through the crowds

Presence of polar groups will also increase solubility of a

molecular compound

We need to remember, though, that even with a polar group, a large molecular size will result in a reduced solubility of the compound Refer to Table 8.4 on Pg. 364 for an chart illustrating the affect of molecular size on solubility

When and how?

We now know how to predict solubility of types of

compounds, and how to determine if a compound is ionic or molecular We can also determine when something is soluble if we:
Know the solvent and solute Know the conditions in which two things are being

mixed:

Temperature Pressure

Like dissolves like

You may have heard the phrase like dissolves like before, but

what does it actually mean?

Solutes with a certain polarity (ie. polar, non-polar) will dissolve in

solvents of the same polarity

For example: NaCl(s) will dissolve in H2O(); I2(g) will dissolve in Br2() Like dissolves like also explains why some gases dissolve in water, and why some compounds with polar and non-polar components can dissolve in polar and in non-polar solvents

So, can you fill out the following table in terms of usually soluble

or usually insoluble?
Solute Polar or Ionic Polar Solvent Non-polar Non-polar

Temperature and solubility

Which is easier: dissolving sugar into warm water, or into

cold water?
Thinking back to our sugar in water example If you increase the temperature of the solvent (water), how does it affect the solubility of the solute (sugar)? In general, the solubility of a solid will increase with increasing temperature Why? Heat is just a form of energy, and something that is hot has more energy that something that is cold So, how can we explain the fact that the sugar dissolves more easily in warm water? Because the warm water has more energy, there are more energetic collisions with the sugar particles

Solubility curves
We know that solubility increases with increasing

temperature
From this we can deduce that at different temperatures

the same solute will have different solubililities We can graph the solubility of various ionic compounds at different temperatures on a solubility curve

Recalling our definition of solubility, solubility is reported in g/100mL Using solubility curves we can determine the solubility of an ionic compound at different temperatures Solubility curves show us the concentration of a saturated solution at a specific temperature

Reading solubilities
Looking at the solubility

curve to the right, determine the following solubilities:

NaNO3 at 30C: KClO3 at 95C:

Cesium sulfate at 15C:

Consider the solubilities

you just determined:

Classify each compound as

unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated

So, how much is saturated?

Lets determine the concentration, in mol/L of a

saturated solution of NaNO3 at 30C

According to the solubility curve, the solubility is We need to convert the g/100mL to mol/L First, convert 100mL to 1L (remember 1L = 1000mL)

Now we can convert g to mol, using M (molar mass)

So, a saturated solution of NaNO3 at 30 C has a concentration of

Back to temperature and solubility

Weve just looked at the solubility of solids, but what about

liquids and gases?

Two liquids of the same temperature usually exchange little to no

energy when combined in solution

So, temperature does not affect the solubility of liquids into each other

In the same way, the solubility of one gas into another is not

influenced by temperature

What about gases and liquids combined? Gas particles have a higher kinetic energy that the particles of a liquid, so you can imagine that in order for a gas to dissolve in a liquid the gas must lose, or experience a decrease in, kinetic energy

Knowing this, what can we say about temperature and the solubility of a gas in a liquid?

The solubility of a gas in a liquid solvent will decrease with increasing temperature

So, can you explain, in terms of energy and particles, what happens if you leave a carbonated drink out to sit at room temperature?

Pressure and solubility

What is pressure? Pressure is defined as the force per unit area The solubility of liquids and gases is not influenced by

pressure The solubility of gases is greatly influenced by pressure

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the

pressure of the gas above the liquid

That is, the greater the pressure (force per unit area) of a gas above a liquid, the greater that gas solubility in that liquid The pressure of other gases will not influence the dissolving gas solubility

Solubility in society
You will be split into 2 large groups Each group will read about 1 of 2 topics concerning solubility and pressure or temperature in real-world situations

Heat pollution Scuba diving

In your groups you will prepare a short presentation on

your topic to deliver to the other group

Be sure to explain the chemistry in each of the cases, as well as why solubility is so important in each cases Present one article from a reputable source about your topic

Rate of dissolving
Weve talked about things being soluble or insoluble, but

what about how fast things dissolve?

solvent as the rate of dissolving

We refer to the measure of how quickly a solute dissolves in a

There are certain factors that affect how quickly a solute dissolves Can you think of any factors that can increase the rate of dissolving of a solute?

You will be split up into 3 groups In your groups, you will rotate around the stations set up around the room and determine how the rate of solubility is affected by each of the following factors:

Temperature Agitation Surface area

You will have 8min at each station, in which time you are to

complete the tasks and fill out your table as a group

Homework
Pg. 370 #1-6, 8-15

Solutes, many and few

Now that we know that things can, or cannot, dissolve,

we also need to consider the how much of something is dissolved into a solvent Check out the following article to see how the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent, not just the fact that it dissolved, can impact our health:
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ski-

wax-chemicals-buildup-blood

How much?
Youve probably all heard the word concentration

before
What does it mean?

Concentration is the quantity (ie. a number) of solute

per unit of solution or of quantity of solvent

There are several ways of reporting how much of a solute

is dissolved in a solvent:

Qualitatively (degree of concentration) Percent concentration (, v/v, m/m, m/v) Small concentrations (ppb) Molar concentration (mol/L)

Qualitative concentrations
How would you describe how concentrated a solution

is, without using numbers?

We generally use the words concentrated or dilute

When we say concentrated in this sense, we mean that there is a lot of solute for the amount of solvent We can also say that the solute:solvent particle ratio is high When we say diluted in this sense, we mean that there is very little solute for the amount of solvent We can also say that the solute:solvent particle ratio is low

Percent concentrations
As mentioned earlier, we can also report

concentrations in terms of percent concentrations:

Percent mass of solute in volume of solution (m/v) Percent mass of solute in mass of solution (m/m) Percent volume of solute in volume of solution (v/v)

For each of the percentage concentrations, work with

your elbow partner to create the formulas

You know that these quantities are percents, and you

know what they are percentages of Once you determine the formulas, determine the units for each percent concentration

Percent concentrations contd

Percent mass of solute in volume of solution
Percent m/v = msolute(g) x 100 vsolvent(ml)

- Percent mass of solute in mass of solution

Percent m/m = msolute(g) x 100 msolution(g)

- Percent volume of solute in volume of solution

% v/v = vsolute(ml) x 100 vsolution(ml)

Lets try it out

An intravenous solution for a patient was prepared by

dissolving 17.5g of glucose in distilled water to make 350mL of solution. Find the % m/v concentration of the solution.

Lets try it out

An intravenous solution for a patient was prepared by dissolving 17.5g of glucose in distilled water to make 350mL of solution. Find the % m/v concentration of the solution.
Given: Required: Analysis: Solve:

Statement:

Lets practice
Try Practice Problems: #1, 8 on Pg. 373 #11, 13 on Pg. 375 #21, 23 on Pg. 376

Very small concentrations

Sometimes concentrations are very small, less than 1%, but

it is still important that we know them

An example of such a concentration is the maximum

permitted concentration of mercury in fish, or the maximum permitted concentration of certain chemicals in soil

We report such small concentrations in parts per million

(ppm) or parts per billion (ppb)

For ppm the concentration is reported as mass of solute to

solution x 106 For ppb the concentration is reported as mass of solute to solution x 109

For ppm and ppb, work with your elbow partner to determine the formulas

Very small concentrations contd

Parts per millon:

Parts per billion

Notice how in both cases the units of mass cancel out because we use the mass of both the solute and of the solution, with units of grams for both quantities

Lets try this out

Health Canadas guideline for the

maximum mercury content in commercial fish is 0.5ppm. When a 1.6kg salmon was tested, it would found to contain 0.6mg of mercury. Would this salmon be safe to eat?

Lets try this out

Health Canadas guideline for the maximum mercury content in commercial fish is 0.5ppm. When a 1.6kg salmon was tested, it would found to contain 0.6mg of mercury. Would this salmon be safe to eat?
Given:

Required: Analysis: Solve:

Statement:

Lets practice
Try Practice Problems #31 and 32 on Pg. 378

Molar concentration
Another way we can express concentrations is in

molarity, or molar concentration

What word do you see in molarity or molar? Yes, this has to do with moles Molarity, or molar concentration, is the amount of

solute, in moles, per litre of solution

Given this, what are the units of molarity?

Chemists tend to like to speak in molar

concentrations because it gives clear information about the number of solute particles in 1L of solution
From the number of moles of a solute in a solution we

can easily determine the mass of solute

Molar concentrations of ions

Just like we can determine the molar concentration of a compound in

a solute, we can also determine the molarity of ions in a solution, using molar ratios
compound is dissolved, and the ions become separated in solution

The only time we can talk about ions floating around is when an ionic

Remember, though, that they are balanced by oppositely charged ions, so they are not really floating around Looking at the formula of an ionic compound, and understanding how it separates into its constituent ions, we can determine the molar concentration of each ion,

For example: Ca(NO3)2(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2NO3-(aq) How many moles of Ca2+ ions are there for every mole of Ca(NO3)2? How many moles of NO3- ions are there for every mole of Ca(NO3)2 ? How do you know? This is the same idea as knowing that for 1 car there are 4 wheels and 1 steering wheel With a known mass of the ionic compound, you can determine the exact molar amounts of each ion.

Lets try this out

2.0L of 0.60M FeCl3 solution are mixed with 1.0L of

0.9M solution. Will a reaction occur? What are the final molar concentrations of each ion?

 Given: Required: Analysis:

Solve:
Ion Dissociation Equations Fe3+ n (mol) C (mol/L)

Ba2+
Cl-

Statement:

Lets practice
Try Practice Problems #41, 42, and 46 on Pg. 381

Homework
Pg. 382 #1, 3, 4-8, 10-12, 14

Did you know . . .?

Knowing concentrations of solutions, and being able

to make a solution of a particular concentration, are both very important in chemistry

Think about the liquid medications we use in everyday

life:

What would happen if we didnt know the concentrations of those liquids, or if we could not make these liquids in a particular concentration?

Check out the following article about standard solutions

and solutions of known concentrations:

The standard solution

A solution of an accurate, and known, concentration is a

standard solution We have several ways of making standard solutions:

We can dissolve a specific mass of a solute in a particular

volume of solvent We can dilute a certain volume of a solution of a known high concentration, called a stock solution, with a particular volume of the same solvent

We use what is called a volumetric flask to make standard

solutions

Just looking at the name, what is a volumetric flask? (break up

the word, what words to do you see?)

A volumetric flask is a glass container with a round bottom and a long, thin neck with a gradation on the neck indicating the exact amount (in L) that it can hold

Preparing solutions from solids

Recall that molar concentration is the amount of solute, in moles,

per litre of solvent

from a solid?

Knowing this, how could you make a solution of known concentration

We can get moles of solute from mass of solute, so we need to use a certain mass of solute We do not always make solutions of 1L, but we can use specific volumes that would be equivalent to the x/L concentration we want

With an elbow partner, and without looking at your textbook, come

up with a series of steps for making a solution from a solid that includes glassware:
Your list of steps might look like:

A: Determine the required mass of solute and volume of solvent 1. Carefully measure out the required mass of solute into a clean, dry beaker 2. Dissolve the solute with some of the solvent in a volumetric flask 3. Add more solute until the desired volume is reached 4. Invert volumetric flask to mix solution thoroughly 5. Clearly label flask with the chemical formula, and concentration, of the solution

Preparing solutions from solids contd Lets try this out: We want to
Thats all great, but how do we

determine the required mass of solute and volume of solvent?

which we want to end up to determine these amounts

make 250mL of 0.6M NaOH. What mass of NaOH do we need, and would we make the solution? nNaOH =

We use the concentration with

Molar concentration is reported as x/L, and so from this we know the n of solute we need per 1L If we are not working with 1L, we can use the moles and the volume we want to determine the n for our particular volume We can determine the m of solute we need

mNaOH =

Preparing solutions from stock solutions

Often times we dilute a concentrated solution in order to make the

same solution with a reduced concentration

concentrated juice with water

We often do this qualitatively at home, like when we dilute

In the lab we are a little bit more quantitative, using the

concentration of solution with which we want to end up, and the concentration with which we are starting
Consider diluting your juice at home: describe what is happening, at

the molecular level, in terms of amounts of particles of solute and of particles of solvent

We are not changing the number of particles when we dilute a solution, we are changing the concentration, and the nsolute:vsolvent by changing the volume

With your elbow partner, and without referring to your textbook,

Once you are finished, compare your list with the steps in the text

come up with a series of steps to prepare a diluted solution from a stock solution
book

Preparing solutions from stock solutions contd

The units of concentration are mol/L, Knowing the units of molar concentration, and what they tell us, we know: C= N V If we rearrange for n we get: n=cv We know the concentration of the stock solution, as well as that of the

solution we want to end up with

Since number particles, n, of solute does not change, we can write:

n1=n2 C1V1= C2V2

1 refers to our starting solution, and 2 refers to our diluted solution

We have all the information for solution 1, but we have only have C for

solution 2

Using this equality, we can determine the V2, the volume of the diluted

solution Once we have V2, we can use the difference between V2 and V1 to calculate how much solvent we need to add to reach the desired concentration

Lets try this out

Given:

You are asked to make a

C2=0.1M V1=0.5L C1=0.1M

Required: Analysis:

0.1M NaCl solution from 500mL of 0.4M NaCl solution. How much water would you need to add?

V = V2-V1 C1V1=C2V2

-Solve:

Statement:

Lets practice
Try Practice Problems #51-53, 56 on Pg. 386

Add acid
Acids can be extremely dangerous if not handled carefully What precautions do we usually take when handling acids?

We always wear gloves and goggles when handling acids Acids can be highly corrosive (that is, they can burn skin)

Acids should always be diluted in fume hoods Dilutions of strong acids are very exothermic (they give off heat energy) They also give off noxious fumes Given how exothermic the dilution of acids is, it is always

safest to add acid, that is, add acid to water NOT water to acid
If you add water, the solution could very easily boil and

splatter

The heat of the dilution may also crack, or shatter, the glassware

Add acid

Homework
Pg. 390 #1-9, 11, 12
Chapter Review Pg. 400 #18-20, 22-25, 27-30, 32

Double displacements - revisited

When we looked at double displacement reactions, we

noticed a few key things:

There were two aqueous solutions of ionic compounds This means that the ionic compound is dissolved in water, that is, the ions are separated by the water Water is not a reactant, simply the medium in which the ionic compound is dissolved In some cases a precipitate, an insoluble solid, was formed This happened because certain combinations of ions are insoluble, while some are When certain ion combinations are soluble, this simply

means that they remain dissolved in solution

They do not participate in the reaction, and as a result are called non-reacting ions or spectator ions

The players and the spectators

Imagine a chemical reaction, and specifically a double

displacement reaction, as a sporting event

At a sporting event there are the players who participate, and

the spectators, those who do not participate in the game

As was previously mentioned, some combinations of

anions and cations in a double displacement are soluble

These do not participate in the reaction, and as a result are

call non-reacting ions or spectator ions

We can think of these as the spectators to a sports game

We also have anion-cation combinations that are insoluble These do participate in the reaction

These are the players in the game

Net ionic equations

Up to now, how have we written the chemical equation for a double

displacement reaction in which there is a soluble (aqueous) product and insoluble (solid) product?
Lets use the reaction of silver nitrate and sodium chromate as an example We have always written both these types of products as compounds, and indicated their states In fact, because the aqueous compounds are just that aqueous or dissolved

we can write them as their separate ions, and indicate their states

Note that the ions are not just floating around, they are balanced by appropriate numbers of oppositely charged ions

When we do this, the spectator ions will cancel out, leaving only the insoluble

products

The equation that is left after we cancel out the spectator ions is called the net

ionic equation, which shows only the ions that combine to produce an insoluble produce

This of this like net income, income after taxes and other costs have been deducted

Lets practice
Try Practice Problems #1-6 on Pg. 410

Qualitative Analysis
You and your group are a group of chemists looking to be hired

by a chemical company to identify a stock room full substances that were not labelled
You are proposing your own unique technique to identify the anion

and cation of each substance, and thus identify the substance

In 3 groups, you will read, and prepare a short presentation, on 1

of each type of qualitative test

Flame tests Colours of ions in solution Precipitation reactions

In your presentation be sure to identify the benefits, shortfalls,

and unique characteristics of your groups qualitative test

as polished, professional, and factually correct as possible

Remember, you are looking to get hired, so make your presentation

Stoich revisited
We already looked at stoichiometry in Unit 3 when we

talked about proportions in reactions

We are still talking about proportions, but we are

looking at, specifically, how known volumes and concentrations of certain species in a reaction can be related to volumes, concentrations, and mass of other species (reactants or products) in the reaction we refer to this as solutions stoichiometry

Because we are determining numerical values for quantities of reaction species, this is a quantitative analysis (think quantity, number)

A few tips
In order to successfully complete a quantitative analysis in

solutions stoichiometry, there are a few things you need to consider:

Always work with a correct and correctly balanced chemical

equation

Your quantities will be incorrect otherwise

As chemists, we always speak in moles, so use the coefficients of

your correct and correctly balanced chemical equation to determine molar ratios, and number of moles, of various species in the chemical reaction

Use molar ratios as a springboard to the quantities you are looking for

Remember to use the units of the quantities you have, and those

you need, to determine how you will arrive at your answer

Lets try this out

When excess lead (II) nitrate was added to 125mL of a

solution of sodium iodide, a bright yellow precipitate of lead (II) iodide was formed. The dry precipitate had a mass of 4.13g. What was the concentration of iodide ions in the solution of sodium iodide?

Lets try this out

Given: Required: Analysis:

Solve:

Statement:

Lets practice
Try Practice Problems #11-13 on Pg. 417

Homework
Pg. 421 #1-9

Youre the experts

You will be split into 2 experts groups and 2 panel groups In your expert groups you will split the reading of Section 9.3 and 9.4

I suggest the following split: 9.3: Introduction Harmful substances from natural sources (2 people) Harmful water pollutant from human activities (2 people) Drinking water standards 9.4: Introduction Treating water hardness Desalination (2 people) Water supply treatment Waste-water treatment

Once you have finished reading and making notes, you will confer with

the rest of your expert group about the topics you have read

You will then move to your panel group, brief them about what you have read: Learning Check Pg. 424 #13-18 (Panel 2 will ask Panel 1) Learning Check Pg. 434 #19-24 (Panel 1 will ask Panel 2)

Homework
Pg. 436 #1-3, 5-11
Chapter Review Pg. 448 #17-21, 23,24, 26-28

Properties of acids and bases

As a class, let us brainstorm some properties of acids

and bases that we know from everyday experience:

Acids
Bases

So, what are acids and bases?

Knowing the properties of acids and bases, how would you

define an acid? How would you define a base? In fact, there are several theories about how acids and bases can be defined and categorized
The theory we tend to subscribe to is the Arrehenius theory of acids

and bases, named after Swedish chemist and physicists! - Svant Arrhenius, a significant part of whose doctoral thesis in 1884 was this theory

The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases states that:

An acid is a species that produces a hydrogen ion (H+) in solution This obviously means that an acid must contain an H that can separate when the acid is in aqueous solution A base is a species that produces a hydroxide (OH-) ion in solution This means that a base must contain a hydroxide that can separate when the base is in aqueous solution H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

Take a look at the following equations paying special attention to what happens when each species dissolves:

Lets look a little closer

What is actually happening, on the molecular level, when

acids and bases dissolve in water?

Consider some examples of acids (eg. HCl, HCN, H2SO4) What kinds of compounds are these? (think EN gradient) In fact, acids are molecular compounds, held together by covalent bonds When an acid dissolved in water, the two resulting species are ions, and as such acids undergo ionization (the formation of ions) in water Consider some examples of bases (eg. NaOH, Ca(OH)2,

Mg(OH)2)

Again, what kinds of compounds are these? Bases are ionic compounds, held together by ionic bonds When a base is dissolved in water, the ions separate or dissociate in water

Properties revisited
Now that you know a little bit more about what exactly

acids and bases are, look at Table 10.1 and compare it to the properties we came up with as a class
How do our mind-maps compare?

The pH scale
We have probably all know of products that have pH control, or of

products that we know qualitatively are acidic or basic

Can you think of any examples?

How do we actually tell if something is acidic or basic? We use what is called the pH scale, a scale which rates the acidity or basicity of a solution from 1-14

pH is, in fact, a measure of the concentration of hydronim ions ([H3O+]) or of hydrogen ions [H+] Which end of the scale is more acidic? Which is more basic?

How can we explain the fact that smaller number indicate

something is acidic, and larger numbers indicate something that is basic?

The pH scale a negative logarithmic (base 10) scale, so the smaller the

number , the greater the [H3O+]

So, acidic or basic?

As previously mentioned, acids produce H+(aq) ions when

dissolved in water

As a result, we measure the acidity of an acid based on how many

H+(aq) ions the acid produces

As you can imagine [H+] (concentration of H+(aq) ions) is greater than [OH-] (concentration of OH-(aq)) The pH of acids is less than 7

Again, bases produce OH-(aq) ions when dissolved in water We still measure pH based on [H+] even in the substance we are measuring is a base

So measuring the acidity of a base we find that [OH-]>[H+] The pH of bases is greater than 7

We have just established that the pH of acids and bases is

related to the [H+] relative to [OH-]

a base What happens when [H+]=[OH-]?

When [H+]>[OH-] we have an acid, and when [H+]<[OH-] we have

When [H+]=[OH-], the solution is neutral, and the pH is 7

Indicating pH
We can also determine whether or not something is acidic

or basic, and its pH range, using indicators

Just like they sound, acid-base indicators change colour in the

presence of an acid or base

An indicator will turn a characteristic colour with a particular pH or pH range For example, phenolphthalein turns pink in a pH of about 9-10 and bromocresol green turns yellow to blue in a pH of about 4-5 While most indicators turn a specific colour with a specific pH or pH range, universal indicator turns a range of colours for pH values throughout the pH scale (0-14) See Table 10.2 on Pg. 457 for pH ranges and colour ranges for specific indicators

Powerful acids and bases

We can talk about acids and bases in an absolute sense that is,

whether something is acidic or basic We can also talk about how acidic or basic something is
We refer to this as the strength of an acid or of base

A strong acid is one that completely ionizes in water

This means that all the H+(aq) have ionized, and there is a large [H+] in the solution In Unit 2 we looked at binary (made up of 2) acids, and oxoacids the same thing applies : these acids will ionize in water, losing their H+(aq)

We call the oxoacids that have 2 or 3 Hs (such as H2SO4 and H3PO4) as diprotic and triprotic (protic protons, H+s), respectively

The first H is lost fairly easily, but the second, and in some cases the third, are not lost as easily, and the resulting ions are weak acids

Often the [H+] of a strong acid is equal to the [acid]

See Table 10.3 on Pg. 458 for examples of strong acids

A strong base, then, is one that completely dissociated in water

All the OH-(aq) have dissociated from the cation to which they were bonded, and there is a large [OH-] Again, the [OH-] of a strong base is equal to the [base]

See Table 10.4 on Pg. 460 for examples of strong bases

The weak
If a strong acid is one that completely ionizes in water,

what is a weak acid?

A weak acid is one that does not completely ionize in

water

Most of the acid molecules will stay bonded when in solution Ionization can occur, but the extent to which it does depends on temperature and concentration of the solution

Again, if a strong base is one that completely

dissociates in water, what is a weak base?

A weak base is one that does not completely dissociate

in water

A weak base will produce relatively few OH-(aq) ions

Strong and weak

Also see Figure 10.6 on Pg. 459 for a comparison of strong and weak acids

Strong vs concentrated
What is the difference between saying an acid or base is

strong vs saying an acid or base is concentrated?

Strength of an acid or a base refers to the extent of ionization

or dissociation, respectively Concentration of an acid or a base, on the other hand, refers to the amount of acid or base molecules per L of solution

A strong acid can be diluted and is still a strong acid A weak base can be concentrated and is still a weak base

Concentration refers to particles of solute per amount of

solvent, and strength refers to extent of ionization and dissociation

DO NOT get the two confused!!

Homework
Pg. 463 #1-6, 8-13, 15, 16

Neutralization
From the word neutralization, you see neutral, meaning not

taking either side, or (in the chemical sense) neither acid nor base
Thus, a neutralization reaction is one between an acid and a base

that produces a species that is neither acidic nor basic

Neutralization does not necessarily mean [OH-]=[H+], but that the acid and the base are neutralized A neutralization reaction produces water and a salt

Based on what we now know about acids and bases, on the molecular level, work with your elbow partner to determine how the water and the salt are produced The H+(aq) ions of the acid combine with the OH-(aq) ions of the base to form water The other ions from the acid and the base combine to form the salt

The numbers of neutralization

Neutralizations can be used to determine the

concentration of the acid or base if the concentration of one of them is known

How can we do this?

Neutralization is when the acidity and basicity of an acid and base, respectively, have been neutralized or balanced That is, when [H+]=[OH-], or as close to this equality as we can get So, if we know one, we can easily determine the other

Lets try it out

Ms. Vandaiyar made up a solution of Ba(OH)2, but

forgot to write the concentration of the solution on the bottle. Danielle suggested we react the Ba(OH)2 with a 0.1250M solution of HCl that Ms. Vandaiyar has previously made to determine the concentration. When Kristal performed the reaction, she used 32.86mL of the HCl to neutralize 25.00mL of the Ba(OH)2. What is the concentration of the Ba(OH)2?

Lets try it out

Given: Analysis:

Required: Solve:

Statement:

Lets practice
Try Practice Problems #1-4 on Pg. 466

Titrations
In terms of reactions of acids with bases, we have simply called them

neutralizations or reactions of
performed is called a titration

The procedure in which a neutralization reaction between an acid and a base is

In a titration, you add a known volume of a solution (acid or base) whose concentration you know to a known volume of the other solution(acid or base) whose concentration you do not know We call the solution whose concentration is known the titrant We use a burette, a long tube with gradations, and open top, and a valve or tap on the bottom, to carefully and incrementally add the titrant to the solution we are titrating (which has indicator in it) We do this until we reach what is called an end-point, which is the point at which the indicator changes colour What we are looking for in a titration is the equivalence point (equivalence, equivalent, equal), which is the point at which the all of the titrant has reacted with all of the reactance

While we work under the assumption that the equivalent point is equal to the end point, this is not always the case, and often the eqivalence point is just before the end point

Check out this video on how to properly perform titrations: As you watch the video, record the steps for a successful titration http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFpFCPTDv2w&feature=related Once you are finished, read the Procedure for an Acid-base Titration on Pg. 468 and compare it with the one you produced

Homework
Pg. 470 #1-3, 7, 8-14, 16
Chapter Review: Pg. 480 #18-24, 26-28, 30, 32, 35