Physiology of Pregnancy

Department of Physiology School of Medicine University of Sumatera Utara

Endometrium and Desidua

3 days to move to uterus

3 -5 days in uterus before implantation

 Implantation results from the action of trophoblast cells that develop over the surface of the blastocyst. These cells secrete proteolytic enzymes that digest and liquefy the adjacent cells of the uterine endometrium.
Once implantation has taken place, the trophoblast cells and other adjacent cells (from the blastocyst and the uterine endometrium) proliferate rapidly, forming the placenta and the various membranes of pregnancy.

Implantation

Following implantation the endometrium is known as the decidua and consists of three regions: the decidua basalis, decidua

capuslaris, and decidua parietalis.

The decidua basalis lies between the chorion and the stratum basalis of the uterus. It becomes the maternal part of the placenta.

The decidua capsularis covers the embryo and is located between the
embryo and the uterine cavity. The decidua parietalis lines the noninvolved areas of the entire pregnant uterus.

Decidua

 When the conceptus implants in the

endometrium,

the

continued

secretion of progesterone causes the endometrial cells to swell further and to store even more nutrients.

These

cells

are

now

called

decidual cells, and the total mass of cells is called the decidua. As the trophoblast cells invade the decidua, digesting and imbibing it, the stored nutrients in the decidua are used by the embryo for growth

and development.
Figure 824

shows this trophoblastic

period of nutrition, which gradually gives way to placental nutrition.

Medical Physiology, Guyton 6 ed, 2006, p.1029

Implantation
Placental implantation in humans begins with invasion of the uterine epithelium and underlying stroma

by
cells

extraembryonic

trophoblast

Villous cytotrophoblast cells at the tips of some anchoring villi proliferate outwards from the underlying basement membrane to form columns, from which individual cells migrate into the decidual tissue These interstitial trophoblast cells invade as far as the superficial layer of the myometrium.

Implantation
Trophoblast cells invde into the uterine wall. The trophoblast differentiates along two main pathway : Villous and extravillous Villous trophoblast includes the villous tree, which is bathed in maternal blood in intervillous space Extravillous trophoblast (EVT) encompasses all the invading subpopulation of trophoblast EVT cells arise during early development as cyttrophoblast

Celss from the cytotrophoblast also give arise to endovascular trophoblast. At the same time, groups of trophoblast cells detach from the columns to invade the lumen of the spiral arteries as endovascular trophoblast The dramatic structural alteration of muscular spirl arteries into dilated sac-like vessel, unresponsive to vasocontrictive agents and capable of high concuctance, are essential to accommodate the huge increase in the blood flow required to the intervillous space

During early human pregnancy, extravillous cytotrophoblasts from anchoring villi invade the decidualized endometrium and myometrium (interstitial trophoblasts) and also migrate in a retrograde direction along the spiral arteries (endovascular trophoblasts) transforming them

into large diameter conduit vessels of low resistance.

Endovascular trophoblast invasion has been reported to occur in two waves; the first into the decidual segments of spiral arteries at 8 to 10

weeks of gestation and the second into myometrial segments at 16 to

18 weeks of gestation. This physiological transformation is characterized by a gradual loss of the normal musculoelastic structure of the arterial wall and replacement by amorphous fibrinoid material in which trophoblast cells are embedded. These physiological changes are required for a

successful pregnancy.

Implantation
Chorionic Villi: Finger-like growths of the trophoblasts into the endometrium to form the placenta

This

vascular

transformation

is

important to ensure an adequate blood supply to the fetoplacental unit.

Failure of this process lead to clinical

pathological miscarriage, conditions intrauterine such as

growth

retardation or preeclamptic toxaemia.

Implantation

Viability of the corpus luteum is maintained by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by the trophoblasts hCG prompts the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone and estrogen Chorion developed from trophoblasts after implantation, continues this hormonal stimulus Between the second and third month, the placenta:

Assumes the role of progesterone and estrogen production

Is providing nutrients and removing wastes

 Chorion:
Outermost embryonic membrane which forms the placenta & produces human chorionic gonadotropin.

 Amnion:
Membrane which surrounds embryo to form the amniotic cavity & produces amniotic fluid.

 Amnionic Fluid:
Protects fetus from trauma & permits free movement without adhesion.

 Yolk Sack:
Provides initial nutrients, supplies earliest RBCs and seeds the gonads with primordial germ cells.

Fetal Membranes

Called the Bag of Waters Consists of two layers 1) Amnion- inner membrane, next to fetus

2) Chorion- outer membrane, next to mother

Function: to house the fetus for the duration of pregnancy, protects from outside world, prevents vertical transmission of infection.

Properties of Amniotic Fluid

Amniotic fluid is the fluid medium that the fetus is surrounded within the amniotic cavity. The volume ranges from 400-1,200 ml, depending on the week of pregnancy. Mainly composed of water. Also composed of ions including sodium, chlorine, and calcium. Amniotic fluid contains urea, which comes from the fetus.

Variations Of Substances In Amniotic Fluid

1200 1000

Amount of substance (% or mg/100ml)

Hemoglobin (%) Iron (mg/100ml) Cholesterol (mg/100ml) Lipids (mg/100ml)

800

600

400

200

0 2 3 4

Months of Pregnancy

Amniotic Fluid Volume Versus Gestation Period In Weeks

1. Amniotic fluid rapidly from an average vol. of 50ml by 12 weeks of pregnancy to 400ml at mid-pregnancy.

2. The 24th week of pregnancy, the vol. of amniotic fluid continues to

3. Maximum of about 1 liter of fluid at 36 to 38 weeks.

Umbilical Cord
The lifeline between mother and fetus Origin : It develops from the connecting stalk 50 cm, diameter 2 cm Contains 3 vessels: 2 arteries and 1 vein, If abnormal of vessels present- often associated with fetal anomalies (heart and kidneys). The arteries carry dirty blood away from fetus. The vein carries clean blood to fetus. Central insertion into the placenta is normal

 Contents 2 arteries that carry blood to the placenta 1 umbilical vein that carries oxygenated blood to the fetus primitive connective tissue Stub drops off in 2 weeks leaving scar (umbilicus)

Umbilical Cord

The Placenta

The Placenta
The placenta consists of thousands of tiny
branched fingers of tissue called CHORIONIC

VILLI these project into the endometrium.

The maternal blood vessels surrounding the chorionic villi break down forming maternal blood sinuses

Origin:
The placenta develops from the chorion frondosum ( foetal origin) and decidua basalis ( maternal origin).

Anatomy At Term
Shape : discoid. Diameter : 15-20 cm. Weight : 500 gm. Thickness: 2.5 cm at its center and gradually tapers towards the periphery. Position : in the upper uterine segment (99.5%), either in the posterior surface (2/3) or the anterior surface (1/3).

Maternal side of placenta

Fetal Side of placenta

a. Foetal surface
Smooth, glistening and is covered by the amnion which is reflected on the cord. The umbilical cord is inserted near or at the center of this surface and its radiating branches can be seen beneath the amnion.

b. Maternal surface
Dull greyish red in colour and is divided into 15-20 cotyledons. Each cotyledon is formed of the branches of one main villus stem covered by decidua basalis.

Placental Function

Minerals Glucose Vitamins O2

Functions Of The Placenta

(1) Respiratory function (2) Nutritive function (3) Excretory function (4) Production of enzymes (5) Production of pregnancy associated plasma proteins (PAPP) (6) Barrier function (7) Endocrine function

The Placenta
Table showing exchange of materials across the placenta

Mother to Foetus
Oxygen Glucose Amino acids Lipids, fatty acids & glycerol Vitamins Ions : Na, Cl, Ca, Fe Alcohol, nicotine + other drugs Viruses Antibodies

Foetus to Mother

Carbon dioxide
Urea Other waste products

(1) Respiratory function:

O2 and CO2 pass across the placenta by simple diffusion. The foetal haemoglobin has more affinity and carrying capacity than adult haemoglobin. 2,3 diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) which competes for oxygen binding sites in the haemoglobin molecule, is less bounded to the foetal haemoglobin (HbF) and thereby allows a greater uptake of O2 ( O2 affinity).

(1) Respiratory function

1. 2. 3. 4.

The rate of diffusion depends upon: Maternal/ foetal gases gradient. Maternal and foetal placental blood flow. Placental permeability. Placental surface area.

(2) Nutritive function

The transfer of nutrients from the mother to the foetus is achieved by : 1. Simple diffusion : e.g. water and electrolytes. 2. Facilitated diffusion: e.g. glucose. 3. Active diffusion: e.g. amino acids. 4. Pinocytosis: e.g. large protein molecules and cells.

(3) Excretory function

Waste products of the foetus as urea are passes to maternal blood by simple diffusion through the placenta.

(4) Production of enzymes:

e.g.: Oxytocinase, Monoamino oxidase, Insulinase, Histaminase and Heat stable alkaline phosphatase.

(5) Production of pregnancy associated plasma proteins (PAPP)

PAPP-A, PAPP-A, PAPP-B, PAPP-B, PAPP-C, PAPP-C, PAPP-D and PAPP-D and PP5. PP5. The exact function of of these proteins is not defined. The exact function these proteins is not defined.

(6) Barrier function:

The foetal blood in the chorionic villi is separated from the maternal blood, in the intervillous spaces, by the Placental Barrier which is composed of : 1. 2. 3. 4. Endothelium of the foetal blood vessels, The villous stroma, The cytotrophoblast, and The syncytiotrophoblast.

(6) Barrier function:

However, it is an incomplete barrier. It allows the passage of antibodies (IgG only), hormones, antibiotics, sedatives, some viruses as rubella and smallpox and some organisms as treponema pallida. Substances of large molecular size as heparin and insulin cannot pass the placental barrier.

(7) Endocrine function

(A) Protein hormones: 1- Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) 2- Human placental lactogen (hPL) 3- Human chorionic thyrotrophin (hCT) 4- Hypothalamic and pituitary like hormones 5- Others as inhibin, relaxin and beta endorphins. (B) Steroid Hormones: 1- Oestrogens 2- Progesterone

Hormonal Secretion by the Placenta

HCG
It is a glycoprotein produced by the syncytiotrophoblast. It supports the corpus luteum in the first 10 weeks of pregnancy to produce oestrogen and progesterone until the syncytiotrophoblast can produce progesterone. HCG molecule is composed of 2 subunits: a. Alpha subunit: which is similar to that of FSH, LH and TSH. b. Beta subunit: which is specific to hCG.

 HCG rises sharply after implantation, reaches a peak of 100.000 mIU/ml about the 60 th day of pregnancy then falls sharply by the day 100 to 30.000 mIU/ml and is maintained at this level until term.

Estimation of beta-hCG is used for: a) Diagnosis of early pregnancy. b) Diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy. c) Diagnosis and follow-up of trophoblastic disease.

Hormone Blood Levels

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) produced by the chorion is less important after 4 months, because the placenta takes over the hormonal secretion of the corpus luteum.

Placental Lactogen (hPL) or hCS

Structurally similar to prolactin and GH (produced by trophoblast cells) Promotes glandular breast development (LITTLE effect on milk production though) Increases fat mobilization (like GH), and decreases maternal glucose utilization, thereby increasing energy stores (glucose and AAs) for the fetus. Mom, thus, relies on fatty acids and Triglycerides while transferring AAs and glucose to fetus (via this hormone). Implicated in gestational diabetes in 4% of pregnancies. (how to avoid moms glucose utilization? Well, insulin resistance could do thatbut what if insulin resistance in the mom goes out of control???)

Relaxin

Secreted by the corpus luteum and then the placenta Levels rise late in pregnancy

Loosens connective tissue

Widens pubic symphysis so head can pass through

Inhibits spontaneous uterine contractions

Promotes cervical effacement

Flattening, spreading, dilation of cervical os

inhibits secretion of FSH and might regulate secretion of hGH.

produced by the ovaries, testes, and placenta

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

increases secretion of fetal cortisol (lung maturation) thought to be the clock that establishes the timing of birth.

Endocrinology of pregnancy

Progesterone

Maternal blood supplies cholesterol Placenta converts cholesterol to progesterone

Takes over following luteolysis Produces enough to support pregnancy by 5-6 wks in humans \ necessary for support of pregnancy

Necessary for endometrial support and secretion

pro = support ... gest = gestation = pregnancy

Exerts negative feedback on LH and FSH

Ovarian follicles do not grow No stimulation for ovarian steroid production Stimulating appetite Diverting energy stores from sugar to fat

Increases fat deposition

Endocrinology of pregnancy

Feto-Placental Unit - Estrogens Progesterone from placenta to fetal adrenal gland

Through umbilical and fetal vasculature fetal adrenal zone converts P to DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone)

Outer layers (cortex)

DHEA circulates to fetal liver converted to 16a-OHDHEA sulfate Converted to estriol in the placenta

E3 is the primary estrogen during pregnancy

Fetus and placenta cooperate to produce maternal estrogens

EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

Anatomical Changes: The female reproductive organs and breasts become increasingly vascular and engorged with blood The uterus enlarges dramatically, causing a shift in the womans center of gravity and an accentuated lumbar curvature (lordosis) Placental production of the hormone relaxin causes pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis to soften and relax This increases motility for easier birth passage There is a normal weight gain of around 28 pounds, due to growth of the fetus, maternal reproductive organs, and breasts, and increased blood volume

EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

Good nutrition is necessary all through pregnancy if the developing fetus is to have all the building materials (especially proteins, calcium, and iron) needed to form its tissues Multivitamins containing folic acid seem to reduce the risk of having babies with neurological problems, including such birth defects as spina bifida and anencephaly (absence of brain and cranial vault with cerebral hemisphere missing or reduced in size)

RELATIVE SIZE OF THE UTERUS BEFORE CONCEPTION AND DURING PREGNANCY

Physiological Changes

Cardiovascular
Respiratory Urinary Metabolic Thermoregulation

Digestive
Skin Breasts Biomechanical

Cardiovascular Changes
INCREASE
Blood volume

DECREASE
Hematocrit

Cardiac (heart) output

Stroke volume End diastolic volume Resting pulse % of blood plasma

Blood pressure
Blood supply to uterus Cardiac reserve Vascular resistance

HYPERTENSION ????

Blood Flow Through the Placenta, and Cardiac Output During Pregnancy.
About 625 milliliters of blood flows through the maternal
circulation of the placenta each minute during the last month of pregnancy. This, plus the general increase in

the mothers metabolism, increases the mothers

cardiac output to 30 to 40 per cent above normal by the 27th week of pregnancy; then, for reasons unexplained,

the cardiac output falls to only a little above normal

during the last 8 weeks of pregnancy, despite the high uterine blood flow.

Blood Volume During Pregnancy

The maternal blood volume shortly before term is about 30 per cent above normal. This increase occurs mainly during the latter half of pregnancy. The cause of the increased volume is likely due, at least in part, to aldosterone and estrogens, which are greatly increased in pregnancy, and to increased fluid retention by the kidneys. Also, the bone marrow becomes increasingly active and produces extra red blood cells to go with the excess fluid volume. Therefore, at the time of birth of the baby, the mother has about 1 to 2 liters of extra blood in her circulatory system.

Physiologic anemia of pregnancy

Physiologic intravascular change Plasma volume increases 50-70 % Beginning by the 6th wk RBC mass increases 20-35 % Beginning by the 12th wk Disproportionate increase in plasma volume over RBC volume----Hemodilution Despite erythrocyte production there is a physiologic fall in the hemoglobin and hematocrit readings

Maternal changes - anatomical and physiological continued

Pulmonary changes:
increase in tidal volume decrease in ERV increase in minute volume of ventilation decrease in airway resistance increase in oxygen uptake at given work load Dyspnea (difficulty breathing)

Maternal Respiration During Pregnancy

Basal metabolic rate + her greater size the total amount of oxygen used by the mother shortly before birth of the baby is about 20 % above normal, and a commensurate amount of carbon dioxide is formed. These effects cause the mothers minute ventilation to increase. Levels of progesterone increase the minute ventilation even more. (progesterone increases the respiratory centers sensitivity to carbon dioxide.) The net result is an increase in minute ventilation of about 50% and a decrease in arterial PCO2 to several millimeters of mercury below that in a nonpregnant woman. Simultaneously, the growing uterus presses upward against the abdominal contents, and these press upward against the diaphragm, so that the total excursion of the diaphragm is decreased. Consequently, the respiratory rate is increased to maintain the extra ventilation.

Function of the Maternal Urinary System During Pregnancy

The rate of urine formation is usually slightly increased because of increased fluid intake and increased load or excretory products. But in addition, several special alterations of urinary function occur. First, the renal tubules reabsorptive capacity for sodium, chloride, and water is increased as much as 50 per cent as a

consequence of increased production of steroid hormones by the placenta and adrenal cortex. Second, the glomerular filtration rate increases as much as 50 per cent during pregnancy, which tends to increase the rate of

water and electrolyte excretion in the urine. When all these

effects are considered, the normal pregnant woman ordinarily accumulates only about 6 pounds of extra water and salt.

Metabolism During Pregnancy

As a consequence of the increased secretion of many

hormones

during

pregnancy,

including

thyroxine,

adrenocortical hormones, and the sex hormones, the basal metabolic rate of the pregnant woman increases about 15 per

cent during the latter half of pregnancy.

As a result, she frequently has sensations of becoming overheated. Also, owing to the extra load that she is carrying, greater amounts of energy than normal must be expended for muscle activity.

Adaptations for Protection

Core temperature falls Perspire more rapidly Greater skin area and increased blood vessels allow added evaporation Increased ventilation promotes cooling

Enhanced regulation of internal temperature in consistent exerciser

WATER, WATER, WATER

Hydration is a major concern during maternal exercise. Provide a ready source of water

Encourage frequent water breaks

EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

Metabolic Changes:
As the placenta enlarges, it produces human placental lactogen, which works with estrogen and progesterone to promote maturation of the breasts for lactation Human placental lactogen (hPL) also promotes the growth of the fetus, and exerts a glucose-sparing effect on maternal metabolism Consequently, maternal cells metabolize more fatty acids and less glucose than usual, sparing glucose for use by the fetus Human chorionic thyrotropin from the placenta increases maternal metabolic rate

Metabolic Changes
INCREASES IN: Insulin level Carbohydrate utilization during exercise as weight increases Estrogen Progesterone Relaxin Caloric requirements by ~ 300 calories/day Protein and fluid requirements

Digestive Changes
Digestive system slows Intestines are pushed up and to the sides Smooth muscle of the stomach relaxes and can cause heartburn

Constipation and hemorrhoids are common during pregnancy Morning sickness

Urinary Changes
Kidneys grow and filter more blood as the blood volume increases

Become more susceptible to bladder and kidney infections

Bladder becomes compressed causing frequent urination and incontinence

Skin Changes
Stretch marks Dark pigmented line on there abdomen which is called Linea Nigra

Pigment changes on their face and neck

Small blood vessels in the face, neck and upper chest MOST OF THESE RESOLVE AFTER PREGNANCY

Breast Changes
Early in pregnancy, tenderness and tightness is common After 8 weeks, breasts grow and blood vessels often are visible

Nipples become larger and darker

A thick yellowish fluid can be expressed from the nipple

Biomechanical Changes
Weight distribution shifts Joint movement Balance of muscle strength

Spinal curves increase

Joint laxity becomes greater More structural discomfort Increased potential for nerve compression

Changes to Body System

First Trimester
Baby begins to grow Increased urination Changes with skin and hair Thickening waistline Nausea/fatigue Babys weight increases Energy level improves Heartburn Leg cramps Pelvis relaxes causing SI discomfort

Third Trimester
Baby has more rapid growth & weight gain Backaches Swelling of the hands, legs, and feet Breathlessness More frequent urination

Second Trimester

Thank you