CCNA Security 07

CCNA Security
Chapter Seven Cryptographic Systems
2009 Cisco Learning Institute.
Lesson Planning
This lesson should take 3-4 hours to present The lesson should include lecture, demonstrations, discussions and assessments The lesson can be taught in person or using remote instruction
Major Concepts
Describe how the types of encryption, hashes, and digital signatures work together to provide confidentiality, integrity, and authentication Describe the mechanisms to ensure data integrity and authentication
Describe the mechanisms used to ensure data confidentiality

Describe the mechanisms used to ensure data confidentiality and authentication using a public key
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, the successful participant will be able to:
1. Describe the requirements of secure communications including integrity, authentication, and confidentiality 2. Describe cryptography and provide an example 3. Describe cryptanalysis and provide an example 4. Describe the importance and functions of cryptographic hashes 5. Describe the features and functions of the MD5 algorithm and of the SHA-1 algorithm 6. Explain how we can ensure authenticity using HMAC 7. Describe the components of key management
Lesson Objectives
8. Describe how encryption algorithms provide confidentiality 9. Describe the function of the DES algorithms 10. Describe the function of the 3DES algorithm 11. Describe the function of the AES algorithm 12. Describe the function of the Software Encrypted Algorithm (SEAL) and the Rivest ciphers (RC) algorithm 13. Describe the function of the DH algorithm and its supporting role to DES, 3DES, and AES 14. Explain the differences and their intended applications 15. Explain the functionality of digital signatures 16. Describe the function of the RSA algorithm 17. Describe the principles behind a public key infrastructure (PKI)
Lesson Objectives
18. Describe the various PKI standards 19. Describe the role of CAs and the digital certificates that they issue in a PKI
20. Describe the characteristics of digital certificates and CAs
Cryptographic Services
Securing Communications Cryptography Cryptanalysis Cryptology
Securing Communications
Requirements Authentication Integrity Confidentiality
Requirements
CSA
MARS
Firewall
VPN IPS
CSA
VPN
Remote Branch
Iron Port
CSA
CSA
CSA CSA
CSA Web Server Email Server
CSA
DNS
Traffic between sites must be secure Measures must be taken to ensure it cannot be altered, forged, or deciphered if intercepted
Authentication
An ATM Personal Information Number (PIN) is required for authentication. The PIN is a shared secret between a bank account holder and the financial institution.
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Integrity
An unbroken wax seal on an envelop ensures integrity. The unique unbroken seal ensures no one has read the contents.
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Confidentiality
I O D Q N H D V W D W W D F N D W G D Z Q
Julius Caesar would send encrypted messages to his generals in the battlefield. Even if intercepted, his enemies usually could not read, let alone decipher, the messages.
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Cryptography
History Transposition Ciphers Substitution Ciphers Stream Ciphers
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History
Scytale - (700 BC)
Vigenre table
German Enigma Machine
Jefferson encryption device
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Transposition Ciphers
1 FLANK EAST ATTACK AT DAWN
Clear Text
The clear text message would be encoded using a key of 3.
F...K...T...T...A...W. .L.N.E.S.A.T.A.K.T.A.N ..A...A...T...C...D...
Use a rail fence cipher and a key of 3.
FKTTAW LNESATAKTAN AATCD

Ciphered Text
The clear text message would appear as follows.
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Substitution Ciphers Caesar Cipher

Clear text

Shift the top scroll over by three characters (key of 3), an A becomes D, B becomes E, and so on.
2
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
3 IODQN HDVW DWWDFN DW GDZQ

Cipherered text
The clear text message would be encrypted as follows using a key of 3.

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Cipher Wheel
Clear text
Shifting the inner wheel by 3, then the A becomes D, B becomes E, and so on.

Cipherered text
The clear text message would appear as follows using a key of 3.
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Vigenre Table
a A B a b b b c c c d d d e e e f f f g g g h h h i i i j j j k k k l l l m m m n n n o o o p p p q q q r r r s s s t t t u u u v v v w w w x x x y y y z z z a
C
D E
c
d e
d
e f
e
f g
f
g h
g
h i
h
i j
i
j k
j
k l
k
l m
l
m n
m
n o
n
o p
o
p q
p
q r
q
r s
r
s t
s
t u
t
u v
u
v w
v
w x
w
x y
x
y z
y
z a
z
a b
a
b c
b
c d
F
G H
f
g h
g
h i
h
i j
i
j k
j
k l
k
l m
l
m n
m
n o
n
o p
o
p q
p
q r
q
r s
r
s t
s
t u
t
u v
u
v w
v
w x
w
x y
x
y z
y
z a
z
a b
a
b c
b
c d
c
d e
d
e f
e
f g
I
J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
i
j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
j
k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a
k
l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b
l
m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c
m
n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d
n
o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e
o
p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f
p
q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g
q
r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h
r
s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i
s
t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i j
t
u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i j k
u
v w x y z a b c d e f g h i j k l
v
w x y z a b c d e f g h i j k l m
w
x y z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n
x
y z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
y
z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p
z
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q
a
b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r
b
c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s
c
d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t
d
e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u
e
f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v
f
g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w
g
h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x
h
i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y 18
Stream Ciphers
Invented by the Norwegian Army Signal Corps in 1950, the ETCRRM machine uses the Vernam stream cipher method. It was used by the US and Russian governments to exchange information. Plain text message is eXclusively OR'ed with a key tape containing a random stream of data of the same length to generate the ciphertext. Once a message was enciphered the key tape was destroyed. At the receiving end, the process was reversed using an identical key tape to decode the message.
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Cryptanalysis
Defining Cryptanalysis Cryptanalysis Methods Meet-in-the-Middle Attack Choosing a Cryptanalysis Method
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Defining Cryptanalysis
Allies decipher secret NAZI encryption code!
Cryptanalysis is from the Greek words krypts (hidden), and analein (to loosen or to untie). It is the practice and the study of determining the meaning of encrypted information (cracking the code), without access to the shared secret key.
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Cryptanalysis Methods
Brute Force Attack
Known Ciphertext
Successfully Unencrypted Key found
With a Brute Force attack, the attacker has some portion of ciphertext. The attacker attempts to unencrypt the ciphertext with all possible keys.
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Meet-in-the-Middle Attack
Known Ciphertext
Use every possible decryption key until a result is found matching the corresponding plaintext.
Known Plaintext
Use every possible encryption key until a result is found matching the corresponding ciphertext.
MATCH of Ciphertext!
Key found
With a Meet-in-the-Middle attack, the attacker has some portion of text in both plaintext and ciphertext. The attacker attempts to unencrypt the ciphertext with all possible keys while at the same time encrypt the plaintext with another set of possible keys until one match is found.
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Choosing a Cryptanalysis Method

1
The graph outlines the frequency of letters in the English language. For example, the letters E, T and A are the most popular.
There are 6 occurrences of the cipher letter D and 4 occurrences of the cipher letter W.
Cipherered text
Replace the cipher letter D first with popular clear text letters including E, T, and finally A. Trying A would reveal the shift pattern of 3.
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Cryptology
Defining Cryptology Cryptanalysis Cryptographic Hashes, Protocols, and Algorithms
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Defining Cryptology
Cryptology
+
Cryptography
Cryptanalysis
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Cryptanalysis
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Cryptographic Hashes, Protocols, and Algorithms
Integrity
Authentication
Confidentiality
DES 3DES AES SEAL RC (RC2, RC4, RC5, and RC6)
MD5 SHA
HMAC-MD5 HMAC-SHA-1 RSA and DSA
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Basic Integrity and Authenticity

Cryptographic Hashes Integrity with MD5 and SHA-1 Authenticity with HMAC Key Management
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Cryptographic Hashes
The Basics General Properties Hashing in Action
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The Basics
Hashes are used for integrity assurance. Hashes are based on one-way functions. The hash function hashes arbitrary data into a fixedlength digest known as the hash value, message digest, digest, or fingerprint.
Data of Arbitrary Length
Fixed-Length Hash Value
e883aa0b24c09f
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General Properties
Arbitrary length text
X
Why is x not in Parens?
h = H (x)
Hash Function
(H)
Why is H in Parens?
Hash Value
e883aa0b24c09f
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Hashing in Action
Vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks
- Hashing does not provide security to transmission.
Well-known hash functions

- MD5 with 128-bit hashes - SHA-1 with 160-bit hashes
I would like to cash this check.
Internet
Pay to Terry Smith $100.00 One Hundred and xx/100 Dollars Pay to Alex Jones $1000.00 One Thousand and xx/100 Dollars
4ehIDx67NMop9
12ehqPx67NMoX
Match = No changes No match = Alterations

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Integrity with MD5 and SHA-1

MD5 SHA Example
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MD5
MD5 is a ubiquitous hashing algorithm Hashing properties
- One-way functioneasy to compute hash and infeasible to compute data given a hash - Complex sequence of simple binary operations (XORs, rotations, etc.) which finally produces a 128-bit hash.
MD5
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SHA
SHA is similar in design to the MD4 and MD5 family of hash functions
- Takes an input message of no more than 264 bits - Produces a 160-bit message digest
The algorithm is slightly slower than MD5. SHA-1 is a revision that corrected an unpublished flaw in the original SHA. SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA512 are newer and more secure versions of SHA and are collectively known as SHA-2.
SHA
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Example
In this example the clear text entered is displaying hashed results using MD5, SHA-1, and SHA256. Notice the difference in key lengths between the various algorithm. The longer the key, the more secure the hash function.
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Authenticity with HMAC

Features of HMAC Example Using Hashing
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Features of HMAC
Uses an additional secret key as input to the hash function The secret key is known to the sender and receiver
- Adds authentication to integrity assurance - Defeats man-in-the-middle attacks
Fixed Length Authenticated Hash Value
Data of Arbitrary Length
Secret Key
e883aa0b24c09f
Based on existing hash functions, such as MD5 and SHA-1.

The same procedure is used for generation and verification of secure fingerprints
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Example
Data
Pay to Terry Smith One Hundred and xx/100 $100.00 Dollars
Received Data
Secret Key
Pay to Terry Smith One Hundred and xx/100 $100.00 Dollars
Secret Key
HMAC (Authenticated Fingerprint)
4ehIDx67NMop9
HMAC (Authenticated Fingerprint)
4ehIDx67NMop9
Pay to Terry Smith One Hundred and xx/100
$100.00 Dollars
If the generated HMAC matches the sent HMAC, then integrity and authenticity have been verified. If they dont match, discard the message.
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4ehIDx67NMop9
Using Hashing
Data Integrity Data Authenticity
e883aa0b24c09f Fixed-Length Hash Value
Entity Authentication
Routers use hashing with secret keys Ipsec gateways and clients use hashing algorithms
Software images downloaded from the website have checksums

Sessions can be encrypted
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Key Management
Components Keyspace Types of Keys Key Properties
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Components
Key Generation
Key Verification
Key Management
Key Storage
Key Exchange
Key Revocation and Destruction
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Keyspace
DES Key
56-bit
Keyspace
11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111
# of Possible Keys
72,000,000,000,000,000
Twice as much time
256
57-bit
11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 1
57
144,000,000,000,000,000
Four time as much time
58-bit
11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11
258
288,000,000,000,000,000
With 60-bit DES an attacker would require sixteen more time than 56-bit DES
59-bit
11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 111
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576,000,000,000,000,000
60-bit
11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111111 1111
260
1,152,000,000,000,000,000
For each bit added to the DES key, the attacker would require twice the amount of time to search the keyspace. Longer keys are more secure but are also more resource intensive and can affect throughput.
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Types of Keys
Symmetric Key Protection up to 3 years Protection up to 10 years Protection up to 20 years Protection up to 30 years Protection against quantum computers Asymmetric Key Digital Signature Hash
80
1248
160
160
96
112 128 256
1776
2432 3248 15424
192
224 256 512
192
224 256 512
Calculations are based on the fact that computing power will continue to grow at its present rate and the ability to perform brute-force attacks will grow at the same rate. Note the comparatively short symmetric key lengths illustrating that symmetric algorithms are the strongest type of algorithm.
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Key Properties
Shorter keys = faster processing, but less secure
Longer keys = slower processing, but more secure
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Confidentiality
Encryption Data Encryption Standard 3DES Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
Alternate Encryption Algorithms

Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
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Encryption
Confidentiality and the OSI Model Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption Symmetric Algorithms Symmetric Encryption Techniques
Selecting an Algorithm
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Confidentiality and the OSI Model

For Data Link Layer confidentiality, use proprietary linkencrypting devices For Network Layer confidentiality, use secure Network Layer protocols such as the IPsec protocol suite For Session Layer confidentiality, use protocols such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) For Application Layer confidentiality, use secure e-mail, secure database sessions (Oracle SQL*net), and secure messaging (Lotus Notes sessions)
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Symmetric Encryption
Pre-shared key
Key
Key
Encrypt
$1000
$!@#IQ
Decrypt
$1000
Best known as shared-secret key algorithms
The usual key length is 80 - 256 bits

A sender and receiver must share a secret key Faster processing because they use simple mathematical operations.
Examples include DES, 3DES, AES, IDEA, RC2/4/5/6, and Blowfish.
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Asymmetric Encryption
Two separate keys which are not shared Decryption Key
Encryption Key
Encrypt
$1000
%3f7&4
Decrypt
$1000
Also known as public key algorithms
The usual key length is 5124096 bits

A sender and receiver do not share a secret key Relatively slow because they are based on difficult computational algorithms Examples include RSA, ElGamal, elliptic curves, and DH.
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Symmetric Algorithms
Symmetric Encryption Algorithm
DES
Key length (in bits)
Description
Designed at IBM during the 1970s and was the NIST standard until 1997. Although considered outdated, DES remains widely in use. Designed to be implemented only in hardware, and is therefore extremely slow in software. Based on using DES three times which means that the input data is encrypted three times and therefore considered much stronger than DES. However, it is rather slow compared to some new block ciphers such as AES.
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3DES
112 and 168
AES Software Encryption Algorithm (SEAL)
128, 192, and 256
Fast in both software and hardware, is relatively easy to implement, and requires little memory. As a new encryption standard, it is currently being deployed on a large scale.
SEAL is an alternative algorithm to DES, 3DES, and AES. It uses a 160-bit encryption key and has a lower impact to the CPU when compared to other software-based algorithms. A set of symmetric-key encryption algorithms invented by Ron Rivest. RC1 was never published and RC3 was broken before ever being used. RC4 is the world's most widely used stream cipher. RC6, a 128-bit block cipher based heavily on RC5, was an AES finalist developed in 1997.
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160
The RC series
RC2 (40 and 64) RC4 (1 to 256) RC5 (0 to 2040) RC6 (128, 192, and 256)
Symmetric Encryption Techniques
blank blank 1100101 01010010110010101
01010010110010101
64 bits
64bits
64bits
Block Cipher encryption is completed in 64 bit blocks
0101010010101010100001001001001 0101010010101010100001001001001
Stream Cipher encryption is one bit at a time

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Selecting an Algorithm
DES
The algorithm is trusted by the cryptographic community Been replaced by 3DES No
3DES
Yes
AES
Verdict is still out Yes
The algorithm adequately protects against brute-force attacks
Yes
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Data Encryption Standard

DES Scorecard Block Cipher Modes Considerations
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DES Scorecard
Description Timeline Type of Algorithm Key size (in bits) Speed Time to crack
(Assuming a computer could try 255 keys per second)
Data Encryption Standard Standardized 1976 Symmetric 56 bits Medium
Days (6.4 days by the COPACABANA machine, a specialized

cracking device)
Resource Consumption
Medium
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Block Cipher Modes

ECB
Message of Five 64-Bit Blocks
Initialization Vector
CBC
Message of Five 64-Bit Blocks
DES
DES
DES
DES
DES
DES
DES
DES
DES
DES
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Considerations
Change keys frequently to help prevent brute-force attacks. Use a secure channel to communicate the DES key from the sender to the receiver. Consider using DES in CBC mode. With CBC, the encryption of each 64-bit block depends on previous blocks. Test a key to see if it is a weak key before using it.
DES
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3DES
3DES Scorecard Encryption Steps
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3DES Scorecard
Triple Data Encryption Standard Standardized 1977 Symmetric 112 and 168 bits Low 4.6 Billion years with current technology Medium
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Encryption Steps
The clear text from Alice is encrypted using Key 1. That ciphertext is decrypted using a different key, Key 2. Finally that ciphertext is encrypted using another key, Key 3.
When the 3DES ciphered text is received, the process is reversed. That is, the ciphered text must first be decrypted using Key 3, encrypted using Key 2, and finally decrypted using Key 1.
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Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

AES Scorecards Advantages of AES
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AES Scorecard
Advanced Encryption Standard Official Standard since 2001 Symmetric 128, 192, and 256 High 149 Trillion years Low
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Advantages of AES
The key is much stronger due to the key length AES runs faster than 3DES on comparable hardware
AES is more efficient than DES and 3DES on comparable hardware

The plain text is now encrypted using 128 AES
An attempt at deciphering the text using a lowercase, and incorrect key
64
Alternate Encryption Algorithms

SEAL Scorecard Rivest Codes Scorecard
65
SEAL Scorecard
Description Timeline Type of Algorithm Key size (in bits) Speed Software-Optimized Encryption Algorithm First published in 1994. Current version is 3.0 (1997) Symmetric 160 High Unknown but considered very safe Low
Time to crack
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Rivest Codes Scorecard

Description Timeline Type of Algorithm Key size (in bits) RC2 1987 Block cipher 40 and 64 RC4 1987 RC5 1994 RC6 1998
Stream cipher
1 - 256
Block cipher Block cipher 0 to 2040 bits (128 suggested) 128, 192, or 256
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Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange

DH Scorecard Using Diffie-Hellman
68
DH Scorecard
Description Timeline Diffie-Hellman Algorithm 1976
Type of Algorithm Asymmetric Key size (in bits) Speed Time to crack
512, 1024, 2048 Slow Unknown but considered very safe Medium
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Using Diffie-Hellman
Alice
Shared
1
Bob
Calc
1 3
Secret
Shared
Secret
Calc
5, 23
2
5, 23
56mod 23 =
8 8
1. Alice and Bob agree to use the same two numbers. For example, the base number g=
5 and prime number p=23 6. 56 modulo 23) = 8 (Y) and

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2. Alice now chooses a secret number x=
3. Alice performs the DH algorithm: gx modulo p = ( sends the new number

8 (Y) to Bob.
Using Diffie-Hellman
Alice
Shared Secret Calc Shared
Bob
Secret
Calc
5, 23
5, 23 6
5
8 8 19 19 mod 23 = 2
56mod 23 =
6
15
515mod 23 = 19
6
815mod 23 =
4. Meanwhile Bob has also chosen a secret number x= gx Alice.
15, performed the DH algorithm: modulo p = (515 modulo 23) = 19 (Y) and sent the new number 19 (Y) to
5. Alice now computes Yx modulo p = (

6. Bob now computes Yx
196 modulo 23) = 2. modulo p = (86 modulo 23) = 2.
The result (2) is the same for both Alice and Bob. This number can now be used as a shared secret key by the encryption algorithm.
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Public Key Cryptography

Symmetric Versus Asymmetric Encryption Digital Signatures Rivest, Shamir, and Alderman (RSA) Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
PKI Standards
Certificate Authorities (CA) Digital Certificates and CAs
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Symmetric Versus Asymmetric Encryption

Overview Confidentiality Authentication Asymmetric Key Algorithms
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Overview
Encryption Key Encryption Plain text
Encrypted text
Decryption Key Decryption Plain text
Key length ranges from 5124096 bits Key lengths greater than or equal to 1024 bits can be trusted Key lengths that are shorter than 1024 bits are considered unreliable for most algorithms
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Public Key (Encrypt) + Private Key (Decrypt) = Confidentiality

Computer A acquires Computer Bs public key
1 Can I get your Public Key please? Here is my Public Key.
Bobs Public Key
Bobs Public Key
Computer A
Encryption Algorithm
Computer A transmits The encrypted message to Computer B
4
Encrypted Text
Bobs Private Key
Computer B
Encrypted Text
Computer A uses Computer Bs public key to encrypt a message using an agreed-upon algorithm
Computer B uses its private key to decrypt and reveal the message
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Private Key (Encrypt) + Public Key (Decrypt) = Authentication

Alice encrypts a message with her private key
1
Alices Private Key
Bob uses the public key to successfully decrypt the message and authenticate that the message did, indeed, come from Alice.
Encrypted Text
Alice transmits the encrypted message to Bob

3
4
Encrypted Text
Alices Public Key
Computer A
Encrypted Text
Alices Public Key
Can I get your Public Key please? Here is my Public Key
Computer B
Bob needs to verify that the message actually came from Alice. He requests and acquires Alices public key
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Asymmetric Key Algorithms

Key length (in bits)
DH 512, 1024, 2048
Description
Invented in 1976 by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman. Two parties to agree on a key that they can use to encrypt messages The assumption is that it is easy to raise a number to a certain power, but difficult to compute which power was used given the number and the outcome. Created by NIST and specifies DSA as the algorithm for digital signatures. A public key algorithm based on the ElGamal signature scheme. Signature creation speed is similar with RSA, but is slower for verification. Developed by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman at MIT in 1977 Based on the current difficulty of factoring very large numbers Suitable for signing as well as encryption Widely used in electronic commerce protocols Based on the Diffie-Hellman key agreement. Described by Taher Elgamal in 1984and is used in GNU Privacy Guard software, PGP, and other cryptosystems. The encrypted message becomes about twice the size of the original message and for this reason it is only used for small messages such as secret keys Invented by Neil Koblitz in 1987 and by Victor Miller in 1986. Can be used to adapt many cryptographic algorithms Keys can be much smaller
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Digital Signature Standard (DSS) and Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)
512 - 1024
RSA encryption algorithms
512 to 2048
EIGamal
512 - 1024
Elliptical curve techniques

160
Digital Signatures
Security Services Properties The Digital Signature Process Code Signing with Digital Signatures
DSA Scorecard
78
Security Services- Digital Signatures

Authenticates a source, proving a certain party has seen, and has signed, the data in question Signing party cannot repudiate that it signed the data Guarantees that the data has not changed from the time it was signed
Authenticity
Integrity Nonrepudiation
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Properties
The signature is authentic and not forgeable: The signature is proof that the signer, and no one else, signed the document. The signature is not reusable: The signature is a part of the document and cannot be moved to a different document. The signature is unalterable: After a document is signed, it cannot be altered. The signature cannot be repudiated: For legal purposes, the signature and the document are considered to be physical things. The signer cannot claim later that they did not sign it.
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The Digital Signature Process

The sending device creates a hash of the document Validity of the digital signature is verified
Signature Verified 0a77b3440
1
Data
Confirm Order
The receiving device accepts the document with digital signature and obtains the public key
hash
Signed Data
Confirm Order ____________ 0a77b3440
4
Signature Key Encrypted hash
Signature Algorithm
3 The sending device encrypts only the hash 0a77b3440 with the private key of the signer The signature algorithm generates a digital signature and obtains the public key
Signature is verified with the verification key

5
Verification Key
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Code Signing with Digital Signatures
The publisher of the software attaches a digital signature to the executable, signed with the signature key of the publisher. The user of the software needs to obtain the public key of the publisher or the CA certificate of the publisher if PKI is used.
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DSA Scorecard
Description Timeline Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) 1994
Type of Algorithm Provides digital signatures Advantages: Disadvantages: Signature generation is fast Signature verification is slow
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Rivest, Shamir, and Alderman (RSA)

RSA Scorecard Properties
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RSA Scorecard
Description Timeline
Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman 1977
Type of Algorithm Asymmetric algorithm

Key size (in bits) Advantages: Disadvantages: 512 - 2048 Signature verification is fast Signature generation is slow
85
Properties of RSA
One hundred times slower than DES in hardware One thousand times slower than DES in software Used to protect small amounts of data Ensures confidentiality of data thru encryption Generates digital signatures for authentication and nonrepudiation of data
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Public Key Infrastructure

Overview Terminology CA Vendors and Sample Certificates Usage Keys
87
Overview
Alice applies for a drivers license. She receives her drivers license after her identity is proven.
Alice attempts to cash a check.
Her identity is accepted after her drivers license is checked.
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Terminology
PKI terminology to remember:

PKI: A service framework (hardware, software, people, policies and procedures) needed to support largescale public key-based technologies. Certificate: A document, which binds together the name of the entity and its public key and has been signed by the CA Certificate authority (CA): The trusted third party that signs the public keys of entities in a PKI-based system
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CA Vendors and Sample Certificates
http://www.verisign.com
http://www.entrust.com
http://www.verizonbusiness.com/
http://www.novell.com
http://www.rsa.com/ http://www.microsoft.com
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Usage Keys
When an encryption certificate is used much more frequently than a signing certificate, the public and private key pair is more exposed due to its frequent usage. In this case, it might be a good idea to shorten the lifetime of the key pair and change it more often, while having a separate signing private and public key pair with a longer lifetime. When different levels of encryption and digital signing are required because of legal, export, or performance issues, usage keys allow an administrator to assign different key lengths to the two pairs. When key recovery is desired, such as when a copy of a users private key is kept in a central repository for various backup reasons, usage keys allow the user to back up only the private key of the encrypting pair. The signing private key remains with the user, enabling true nonrepudiation.
91
PKI Standards
The Current State X.509v3 RSA PKCS Standards Public Key Technology
92
The Current State
X.509
Many vendors have proposed and implemented proprietary solutions Progression towards publishing a common set of standards for PKI protocols and data formats
93
X.509v3
X.509v3 is a standard that describes the certificate structure. X.509v3 is used with:
- Secure web servers: SSL and TLS
- Web browsers: SSL and TLS

- Email programs: S/MIME - IPsec VPNs: IKE
94
X.509v3 Applications
SSL Internet Mail Server S/MIME External Web Server
EAP-TLS Cisco Secure ACS CA Server
Internet
Enterprise Network
IPsec
VPN Concentrator
Certificates can be used for various purposes. One CA server can be used for all types of authentication as long as they support the same PKI procedures.
95
RSA PKCS Standards
PKCS PKCS PKCS PKCS PKCS PKCS PKCS PKCS PKCS PKCS
#1: RSA Cryptography Standard #3: DH Key Agreement Standard #5: Password-Based Cryptography Standard #6: Extended-Certificate Syntax Standard #7: Cryptographic Message Syntax Standard #8: Private-Key Information Syntax Standard #10: Certification Request Syntax Standard #12: Personal Information Exchange Syntax Standard #13: Elliptic Curve Cryptography Standard #15: Cryptographic Token Information Format Standard
96
Public Key Technology

PKCS#7 PKCS#10
CA
Certificate
Signed Certificate
PKCS#7
A PKI communication protocol used for VPN PKI enrollment Uses the PKCS #7 and PKCS #10 standards
97
Certificate Authorities
Single-Root PKI Topology Hierarchical CA Topology Cross-Certified CA Registration Authorities
98
Single-Root PKI Topology

Certificates issued by one CA Centralized trust decisions Single point of failure
Root CA
99
Hierarchical CA Topology
Root CA
Subordinate CA
Delegation and distribution of trust Certification paths

100
Cross-Certified CAs
CA2
CA1
CA3
Mutual cross-signing of CA certificates

101
Registration Authorities
After the Registration Authority adds specific information to the certificate request and the request is approved under the organizations policy, it is forwarded on to the Certification Authority
2 Completed Enrollment Request Forwarded to CA
CA
Hosts will submit certificate requests to the RA

Enrollment request
RA
3 1 Certificate Issued
The CA will sign the certificate request and send it back to the host
102
Digital Certificates and CAs

Retrieving the CA Certificates Submitting Certificate Requests Authenticating PKI Authentication Characteristics
103
Retrieving the CA Certificates

Alice and Bob telephone the CA administrator and verify the public key and serial number of the certificate
Out-of-Band Authentication of the CA Certificate
3
Out-of-Band Authentication of the CA Certificate CA Admin
POTS
3
POTS
CA
1 1
CA Certificate
CA Certificate
Enterprise Network
2 2
Alice and Bob request the CA certificate that contains the CA public key
Each system verifies the validity of the certificate

104
Submitting Certificate Requests

The certificate is retrieved and the certificate is installed onto the system
Out-of-Band Authentication of the CA Certificate POTS CA
1 3
The CA administrator telephones to confirm their submittal and the public key and issues the certificate by adding some additional data to the request, and digitally signing it all
Out-of-Band Authentication of the CA Certificate POTS
CA Admin
Certificate Request
Certificate Request 3
Enterprise Network
Both systems forward a certificate request which includes their public key. All of this information is encrypted using the public key of the CA
105
Authenticating
Bob and Alice exchange certificates. The CA is no longer involved
2 2
Private Key (Alice) Certificate (Alice)

1
Private Key (Bob)
Certificate (Alice)
Certificate (Bob)
Certificate (Bob) CA Certificate CA Certificate
Each party verifies the digital signature on the certificate by hashing the plaintext portion of the certificate, decrypting the digital signature using the CA public key, and comparing the results.
106
PKI Authentication Characteristics

To authenticate each other, users have to obtain the certificate of the CA and their own certificate. These steps require the out-of-band verification of the processes. Public-key systems use asymmetric keys where one is public and the other one is private. Key management is simplified because two users can freely exchange the certificates. The validity of the received certificates is verified using the public key of the CA, which the users have in their possession. Because of the strength of the algorithms, administrators can set a very long lifetime for the certificates.
107
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CCNA Security

Chapter Seven Cryptographic Systems

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Describe the mechanisms used to ensure data confidentiality

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

20. Describe the characteristics of digital certificates and CAs

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

German Enigma Machine

Jefferson encryption device

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

The clear text message would be encoded using a key of 3.

F...K...T...T...A...W. .L.N.E.S.A.T.A.K.T.A.N ..A...A...T...C...D...

Use a rail fence cipher and a key of 3.

FKTTAW LNESATAKTAN AATCD

The clear text message would appear as follows.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Substitution Ciphers Caesar Cipher

The clear text message would be encoded using a key of 3.

3 IODQN HDVW DWWDFN DW GDZQ

The clear text message would be encrypted as follows using a key of 3.

The clear text message would be encoded using a key of 3.

3 IODQN HDVW DWWDFN DW GDZQ

The clear text message would appear as follows using a key of 3.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Allies decipher secret NAZI encryption code!

Successfully Unencrypted Key found

Choosing a Cryptanalysis Method

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Cryptographic Hashes, Protocols, and Algorithms

HMAC-MD5 HMAC-SHA-1 RSA and DSA

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Basic Integrity and Authenticity

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Data of Arbitrary Length

Fixed-Length Hash Value

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Arbitrary length text

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Well-known hash functions

I would like to cash this check.

Match = No changes No match = Alterations

Integrity with MD5 and SHA-1

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

2009 Cisco Learning Institute.

Authenticity with HMAC