Chapter Six

Demand
Properties of Demand Functions
Comparative statics analysis of
ordinary demand functions -- the
study of how ordinary demands
x
1
*(p
1
,p
2
,y) and x
2
*(p
1
,p
2
,y) change as
prices p
1
, p
2
and income y change.
Own-Price Changes
How does x
1
*(p
1
,p
2
,y) change as p
1

changes, holding p
2
and y constant?
Suppose only p
1
increases, from p
1

to p
1
and then to p
1
.

x
1
x
2
p
1
= p
1

Fixed p
2
and y.
p
1
x
1
+ p
2
x
2
= y
Own-Price Changes
Own-Price Changes
x
1
x
2
p
1
= p
1

p
1
= p
1

Fixed p
2
and y.
p
1
x
1
+ p
2
x
2
= y
Own-Price Changes
x
1
x
2
p
1
= p
1

p
1
=
p
1

Fixed p
2
and y.
p
1
= p
1

p
1
x
1
+ p
2
x
2
= y
x
2
x
1
p
1
= p
1

Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
Own-Price Changes
p
1
= p
1

Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
p
1
= p
1

x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1
= p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1
= p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1

p
1
= p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1

p
1
= p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1

p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1

p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Ordinary
demand curve
for commodity 1
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1

p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Ordinary
demand curve
for commodity 1
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
x
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
p
1

p
1

p
1

x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Ordinary
demand curve
for commodity 1
p
1
price
offer
curve
Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
The curve containing all the utility-
maximizing bundles traced out as p
1

changes, with p
2
and y constant, is
the p
1
- price offer curve.
The plot of the x
1
-coordinate of the
p
1
- price offer curve against p
1
is the
ordinary demand curve for
commodity 1.
Own-Price Changes
What does a p
1
price-offer curve look
like for Cobb-Douglas preferences?
Own-Price Changes
What does a p
1
price-offer curve look
like for Cobb-Douglas preferences?
Take


Then the ordinary demand functions
for commodities 1 and 2 are
U x x x x
a b
( , ) .
1 2 1 2
=
Own-Price Changes
x p p y
a
a b
y
p
1 1 2
1
*
( , , ) =
+

x p p y
b
a b
y
p
2 1 2
2
*
( , , ) . =
+

and
Notice that x
2
* does not vary with p
1
so the
p
1
price offer curve is
Own-Price Changes
x p p y
a
a b
y
p
1 1 2
1
*
( , , ) =
+

x p p y
b
a b
y
p
2 1 2
2
*
( , , ) . =
+

and
Notice that x
2
* does not vary with p
1
so the
p
1
price offer curve is flat
Own-Price Changes
x p p y
a
a b
y
p
1 1 2
1
*
( , , ) =
+

x p p y
b
a b
y
p
2 1 2
2
*
( , , ) . =
+

and
Notice that x
2
* does not vary with p
1
so the
p
1
price offer curve is flat and the ordinary
demand curve for commodity 1 is a
Own-Price Changes
x p p y
a
a b
y
p
1 1 2
1
*
( , , ) =
+

x p p y
b
a b
y
p
2 1 2
2
*
( , , ) . =
+

and
Notice that x
2
* does not vary with p
1
so the
p
1
price offer curve is flat and the ordinary
demand curve for commodity 1 is a
rectangular hyperbola.
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
2
x
1
Own-Price Changes
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
by
a b p
2
2
*
( )
=
+
x
ay
a b p
1
1
*
( )
=
+
x
1
*(p
1
) x
1
*(p
1
)
x
1
*(p
1
)
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Own-Price Changes
Ordinary
demand curve
for commodity 1
is
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
by
a b p
2
2
*
( )
=
+
x
ay
a b p
1
1
*
( )
=
+
x
ay
a b p
1
1
*
( )
=
+
Own-Price Changes
What does a p
1
price-offer curve look
like for a perfect-complements utility
function?
Own-Price Changes
What does a p
1
price-offer curve look
like for a perfect-complements utility
function?
U x x x x ( , ) min , .
1 2 1 2
Then the ordinary demand functions
for commodities 1 and 2 are
Own-Price Changes
x p p y x p p y
y
p p
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 2
* *
( , , ) ( , , ) . = =
+
Own-Price Changes
x p p y x p p y
y
p p
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 2
* *
( , , ) ( , , ) . = =
+
With p
2
and y fixed, higher p
1
causes
smaller x
1
* and x
2
*.
Own-Price Changes
x p p y x p p y
y
p p
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 2
* *
( , , ) ( , , ) . = =
+
With p
2
and y fixed, higher p
1
causes
smaller x
1
* and x
2
*.
p x x
y
p
1 1 2
2
0 = , .
* *
As
Own-Price Changes
x p p y x p p y
y
p p
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 2
* *
( , , ) ( , , ) . = =
+
With p
2
and y fixed, higher p
1
causes
smaller x
1
* and x
2
*.
p x x
y
p
1 1 2
2
0 = , .
* *
As
p x x
1 1 2
0 = , .
* *
As
Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
1
x
2
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
y
p p
2
1 2
*
=
+
x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+
Own-Price Changes
x
1
x
2
p
1

x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+

p
1
= p
1



y/p
2
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
y
p p
2
1 2
*
=
+
x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+
Own-Price Changes
x
1
x
2
p
1

p
1

p
1
= p
1


x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+


y/p
2
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
y
p p
2
1 2
*
=
+
x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+
Own-Price Changes
x
1
x
2
p
1

p
1

p
1

x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+
p
1
= p
1




y/p
2
p
1
x
1
*
Ordinary
demand curve
for commodity 1
is
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
y
p p
2
1 2
*
=
+
x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+
x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
. =
+
Own-Price Changes
x
1
x
2
p
1

p
1

p
1

y
p
2
y/p
2
Own-Price Changes
What does a p
1
price-offer curve look
like for a perfect-substitutes utility
function?
U x x x x ( , ) .
1 2 1 2
Then the ordinary demand functions
for commodities 1 and 2 are
Own-Price Changes
x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
1 1 2
1 2
1 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ ,
=
>
<

x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
2 1 2
1 2
2 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ , .
=
<
>

and
Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
0
*
=
x
y
p
1
1
*
=
p
1
= p
1
< p
2

Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
0
*
=
x
y
p
1
1
*
=
p
1

p
1
= p
1
< p
2

x
y
p
1
1
*
=

Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
p
1

p
1
= p
1
= p
2
Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
p
1

p
1
= p
1
= p
2
Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
0
*
=
x
y
p
1
1
*
=
p
1

p
1
= p
1
= p
2


x
1
0
*
=

x
y
p
2
2
*
=

Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
2
0
*
=
x
y
p
1
2
*
=
p
1

p
1
= p
1
= p
2

x
1
0
*
=

x
y
p
2
2
*
=

0
1
2
s s x
y
p
*

p
2
= p
1

Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
y
p
2
2
*
=
x
1
0
*
=
p
1

p
1

x
1
0
*
=
p
2
= p
1

Fixed p
2
and y.
Own-Price Changes
x
2
x
1
p
1
x
1
*
Fixed p
2
and y.
p
1

p
2
= p
1

p
1

x
y
p
1
1
*
=

0
1
2
s s x
y
p
*
y
p
2
p
1
price
offer
curve
Ordinary
demand curve
for commodity 1
Own-Price Changes
Usually we ask Given the price for
commodity 1 what is the quantity
demanded of commodity 1?
But we could also ask the inverse
question At what price for
commodity 1 would a given quantity
of commodity 1 be demanded?
Own-Price Changes
p
1
x
1
*
p
1

Given p
1
, what quantity is
demanded of commodity 1?
Own-Price Changes
p
1
x
1
*
p
1

Given p
1
, what quantity is
demanded of commodity 1?
Answer: x
1
units.
x
1

Own-Price Changes
p
1
x
1
*
x
1

Given p
1
, what quantity is
demanded of commodity 1?
Answer: x
1
units.
The inverse question is:
Given x
1
units are
demanded, what is the
price of
commodity 1?
Own-Price Changes
p
1
x
1
*
p
1

x
1

Given p
1
, what quantity is
demanded of commodity 1?
Answer: x
1
units.
The inverse question is:
Given x
1
units are
demanded, what is the
price of
commodity 1?
Answer: p
1

Own-Price Changes
Taking quantity demanded as given
and then asking what must be price
describes the inverse demand
function of a commodity.
Own-Price Changes
A Cobb-Douglas example:
x
ay
a b p
1
1
*
( )
=
+
is the ordinary demand function and
p
ay
a b x
1
1
=
+ ( )
*
is the inverse demand function.
Own-Price Changes
A perfect-complements example:
x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+
is the ordinary demand function and
p
y
x
p
1
1
2
=
*
is the inverse demand function.
Income Changes
How does the value of x
1
*(p
1
,p
2
,y)
change as y changes, holding both
p
1
and p
2
constant?
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
Income Changes
A plot of quantity demanded against
income is called an Engel curve.
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
x
1
*
y
x
1

x
1

x
1

y
y
y
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
x
1
*
y
x
1

x
1

x
1

y
y
y
Engel
curve;
good 1
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
x
2
*
y
x
2

x
2

x
2

y
y
y
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
x
2
*
y
x
2

x
2

x
2

y
y
y
Engel
curve;
good 2
x
2
x
1
Income Changes
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
x
1
*
x
2
*
y
y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

y
y
y
y
y
y
Engel
curve;
good 2
Engel
curve;
good 1
Income Changes and Cobb-
Douglas Preferences
An example of computing the
equations of Engel curves; the Cobb-
Douglas case.

The ordinary demand equations are
U x x x x
a b
( , ) .
1 2 1 2
=
x
ay
a b p
x
by
a b p
1
1
2
2
* *
( )
;
( )
. =
+
=
+
Income Changes and Cobb-
Douglas Preferences
x
ay
a b p
x
by
a b p
1
1
2
2
* *
( )
;
( )
. =
+
=
+
Rearranged to isolate y, these are:
y
a b p
a
x
y
a b p
b
x
=
+
=
+
( )
( )
*
*
1
1
2
2
Engel curve for good 1
Engel curve for good 2
Income Changes and Cobb-
Douglas Preferences
y
y
x
1
*
x
2
*
y
a b p
a
x =
+ ( )
*
1
1
Engel curve
for good 1
y
a b p
b
x =
+ ( )
*
2
2
Engel curve
for good 2
Income Changes and Perfectly-
Complementary Preferences
Another example of computing the
equations of Engel curves; the
perfectly-complementary case.

The ordinary demand equations are
x x
y
p p
1 2
1 2
* *
. = =
+
U x x x x ( , ) min , .
1 2 1 2
=
Income Changes and Perfectly-
Complementary Preferences
Rearranged to isolate y, these are:
y p p x
y p p x
= +
= +
( )
( )
*
*
1 2 1
1 2 2
Engel curve for good 1
x x
y
p p
1 2
1 2
* *
. = =
+
Engel curve for good 2
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes
x
1
x
2
Income Changes
x
1
x
2
y < y < y
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes
x
1
x
2
y < y < y
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes
x
1
x
2
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

x
1

Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes
x
1
x
2
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

x
1

x
1
*
y
y
y
y
Engel
curve;
good 1
x
1

x
1

x
1

Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes
x
1
x
2
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

x
1

x
2
*
y
x
2

x
2

x
2

y
y
y
Engel
curve;
good 2
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes
x
1
x
2
y < y < y
x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

x
1

x
1
*
x
2
*
y
y
x
2

x
2

x
2

y
y
y
y
y
y
Engel
curve;
good 2
Engel
curve;
good 1
x
1

x
1

x
1

Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes
x
1
*
x
2
*
y
y
x
2

x
2

x
2

y
y
y
y
y
y
x
1

x
1

x
1

y p p x = + ( )
*
1 2 2
y p p x = + ( )
*
1 2 1
Engel
curve;
good 2
Engel
curve;
good 1
Fixed p
1
and p
2
.
Income Changes and Perfectly-
Substitutable Preferences
Another example of computing the
equations of Engel curves; the
perfectly-substitution case.

The ordinary demand equations are
U x x x x ( , ) .
1 2 1 2
= +
Income Changes and Perfectly-
Substitutable Preferences
x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
1 1 2
1 2
1 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ ,
=
>
<

x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
2 1 2
1 2
2 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ , .
=
<
>

Income Changes and Perfectly-

x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
2 1 2
1 2
2 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ , .
=
<
>

Suppose p
1
< p
2
. Then
Income Changes and Perfectly-
Substitutable Preferences
x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
1 1 2
1 2
1 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ ,
=
>
<

x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
2 1 2
1 2
2 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ , .
=
<
>

Suppose p
1
< p
2
. Then x
y
p
1
1
*
=
x
2
0
*
=
and
Income Changes and Perfectly-
Substitutable Preferences
x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
1 1 2
1 2
1 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ ,
=
>
<

x p p y
if p p
y p if p p
2 1 2
1 2
2 1 2
0
*
( , , )
,
/ , .
=
<
>

Suppose p
1
< p
2
. Then x
y
p
1
1
*
=
x
2
0
*
=
and
x
2
0
*
. = y p x =
1 1
*
and
Income Changes and Perfectly-
Substitutable Preferences
x
2
0
*
. =
y p x =
1 1
*
y y
x
1
* x
2
*
0
Engel curve
for good 1
Engel curve
for good 2
Income Changes
In every example so far the Engel
curves have all been straight lines?
Q: Is this true in general?
A: No. Engel curves are straight
lines if the consumers preferences
are homothetic.
Homotheticity
A consumers preferences are
homothetic if and only if


for every k > 0.
That is, the consumers MRS is the
same anywhere on a straight line
drawn from the origin.
(x
1
,x
2
) (y
1
,y
2
) (kx
1
,kx
2
) (ky
1
,ky
2
)

p p
Income Effects -- A
Nonhomothetic Example
Quasilinear preferences are not
homothetic.


For example,
U x x f x x ( , ) ( ) .
1 2 1 2
= +
U x x x x ( , ) .
1 2 1 2
= +
Quasi-linear Indifference Curves
x
2
x
1
Each curve is a vertically shifted
copy of the others.
Each curve intersects
both axes.
Income Changes; Quasilinear
Utility
x
2
x
1
x
1
~
Income Changes; Quasilinear
Utility
x
2
x
1
x
1
~
x
1
*
y
x
1
~
Engel
curve
for
good 1
Income Changes; Quasilinear
Utility
x
2
x
1
x
1
~
x
2
*
y
Engel
curve
for
good 2
Income Changes; Quasilinear
Utility
x
2
x
1
x
1
~
x
1
*
x
2
*
y
y
x
1
~
Engel
curve
for
good 2
Engel
curve
for
good 1
Income Effects
A good for which quantity demanded
rises with income is called normal.
Therefore a normal goods Engel
curve is positively sloped.
Income Effects
A good for which quantity demanded
falls as income increases is called
income inferior.
Therefore an income inferior goods
Engel curve is negatively sloped.
x
2
x
1
Income Changes; Goods
1 & 2 Normal
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

Income
offer curve
x
1
*
x
2
*
y
y
x
1

x
1

x
1

x
2

x
2

x
2

y
y
y
y
y
y
Engel
curve;
good 2
Engel
curve;
good 1
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
Income
offer curve
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
x
1
*
y
Engel curve
for good 1
Income Changes; Good 2 Is Normal,
Good 1 Becomes Income Inferior
x
2
x
1
x
1
*
x
2
*
y
y
Engel curve
for good 2
Engel curve
for good 1
Ordinary Goods
A good is called ordinary if the
quantity demanded of it always
increases as its own price decreases.
Ordinary Goods
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
1
x
2
Ordinary Goods
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
1
x
2
p
1
price
offer
curve
Ordinary Goods
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
1
x
2
p
1
price
offer
curve
x
1
*
Downward-sloping
demand curve
Good 1 is
ordinary

p
1
Giffen Goods
If, for some values of its own price,
the quantity demanded of a good
rises as its own-price increases then
the good is called Giffen.
Ordinary Goods
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
1
x
2
Ordinary Goods
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
1
x
2
p
1
price offer
curve
Ordinary Goods
Fixed p
2
and y.
x
1
x
2
p
1
price offer
curve
x
1
*
Demand curve has
a positively
sloped part
Good 1 is
Giffen

p
1
Cross-Price Effects
If an increase in p
2
increases demand for commodity 1
then commodity 1 is a gross
substitute for commodity 2.

reduces demand for commodity 1
then commodity 1 is a gross
complement for commodity 2.
Cross-Price Effects
A perfect-complements example:
x
y
p p
1
1 2
*
=
+
c
c
x
p
y
p p
1
2
1 2
2
0
*
. =
+
<
so
Therefore commodity 2 is a gross
complement for commodity 1.
Cross-Price Effects
p
1
x
1
*
p
1

p
1

p
1

y
p
2

Increase the price of
good 2 from p
2
to p
2

and
Cross-Price Effects
p
1
x
1
*
p
1

p
1

p
1

y
p
2

Increase the price of
good 2 from p
2
to p
2

and the demand curve
for good 1 shifts inwards
-- good 2 is a
complement for good 1.
Cross-Price Effects
A Cobb- Douglas example:
x
by
a b p
2
2
*
( )
=
+
so
Cross-Price Effects
A Cobb- Douglas example:
x
by
a b p
2
2
*
( )
=
+
c
c
x
p
2
1
0
*
. =
so
Therefore commodity 1 is neither a gross
complement nor a gross substitute for
commodity 2.