Ridge Lines

Production
Production
an activity that creates value
Inputs for Production

raw materials, labor, land, capital, & entrepreneurial or managerial talent. Capital includes tools, machinery, equipment, & physical facilities.
Production Function
Q = f(X1,X2,X3,X4,,Xn) where Q is the quantity of output that can be produced with amounts of inputs, X1,X2,X3,X4,,Xn.
Short run
time period so short that the amounts of some inputs can not be changed For example, the quantity of plant & heavy equipment can not be changed in a short time period.
Long run
time period long enough for all inputs to be changed
Fixed input
an input whose quantity can not be changed in the short run
Variable input
an input whose quantity can be changed in a short period of time Examples: labor, raw materials
The scale of a firms operation is determined by its fixed inputs.
We can look at the productivity of a variable input given a fixed level of fixed input.
Marginal Product (MP) of the variable input X Discrete MP = Q/ X = TP/ X Change in output resulting from a one-unit change in the quantity of input Continuous MP = dQ/dX = dTP/dX Rate of change in total output as the usage of the variable input increases by very small amounts.
Graphical Interpretation of MP
Q = TP
The continuous MP is the slope of the total product curve at a particular point.
The discrete MP is the slope of the line segment connecting 2 points on the total product curve.
Example: Q = 21X + 9X2 X3

X Q = TP 0 1 2 0 29 70

Discrete MP X Q = TP Q/X
0 0
1
2
29
70
29
41

Discrete MP X Q = TP Q/X
0 0
Continuous MP dQ/dX =21+ 18 X 3X2
1
2
29
70
29
41
36
45
Average Product (AP)

AP = Q / X = TP / X Amount of product per unit of input Can be calculated for variable or fixed inputs

AP = Q / X = (21X + 9X2 X3) / X = 21 + 9X X2
X = 1: AP = 29 X = 2: AP = 35
Graphical Interpretation of AP = Q / X
Q = TP
The AP of a particular value of X1 can be interpreted as the slope of the line from the origin to the corresponding point on the curve.
Q1 0
X1
In this graph, we see that initially, AP is increasing

Q = TP
0 X
and then decreasing

Q = TP
0 X
Principle of Diminishing Marginal Returns

As the amount of a variable input is increased and combined with a specified amount of fixed inputs, a point is eventually reached where the resulting increases in the quantity of output get smaller & smaller. In other words, as the amount of variable input increases, eventually the MP of the variable input falls.
Q = TP
Total Product, Marginal Product, & Average Product Curves

Diminishing marginal returns set in when MP starts to fall (but is still positive). The TP curve gets flatter as the slope of TP falls.
MP AP
incr marg returns
MP AP
pt of dim marg returns
Q = TP
MP AP
X MP AP
Diminishing average returns set in when AP starts to fall. (Remember that AP is the slope of the line from the origin to the point on the TP curve.)
pt of dim avg returns
Q = TP
MP AP
dim total returns
MP AP
Diminishing total returns set in when the TP curve turns downward and MP becomes negative.
marginal returns become negative
Isoquant
a curve showing all possible efficient combinations of input that are capable of producing a certain quantity of output (Note: iso means same, so isoquant means same quantity)
Isoquant for 100 units of output

Quantity of capital used per unit of time
K1 K2 K3
100 units of output can be produced in many different ways including L1 units of labor & K1 units of capital, L2 units of labor & K2 units of capital, L3 units of labor & K3 units of capital, & L4 units of labor & K4 units of capital.
K4
100
L1 L2
L3
L4
Quantity of labor used per unit of time
Isoquants for different output levels

As you move in a northeasterly direction, the amount of output produced increases, along with the amount of inputs used.
125 100 50 Quantity of labor used per unit of time
If you move out from the origin along a ray with constant slope, the input combinations have a constant capital-labor ratio.
Each of the indicated points uses one-third as much capital as labor.
15 12 140 125
8
5 50 15 24 36
100
45
It is possible for an isoquant to have positively sloped sections.

In these sections, youre increasing the amounts of both inputs, but output is not increasing, because the marginal product of one the inputs is negative.
The lines connecting the points where the isoquants begin to slope upward are called ridge lines.
ridge lines
No profit-maximizing firm will operate at a point outside the ridge lines, since it can produce the same output with less of both outputs.
Quantity of capital used per unit of time K2 A B
Notice, for example, that since points A & B are on the same isoquant, they produce the same amount of output. However, point B is a more expensive way to produce since it uses more capital & more labor.
K1
L1 L2
Marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS)

The slope of the isoquant The rate at which you can trade off inputs and still produce the same amount of output. For example, if you can decrease the amount of capital by 1 unit while increasing the amount of labor by 3 units, & still produce the same amount of output, the marginal rate of technical substitution is 1/3.
What is the MRTS or slope of the isoquant?

Quantity of capital used per unit of time Consider 2 points A & B on the same isoquant. Lets divide the movement between A & B into 2 parts, from A to C, & from C to B. Moving from A to C, Q = (Q/K) K . Moving from C to B, Q = (Q/L) L . Moving from A to B, Q = (Q/K) K + (Q/L) L = MPK K + MPL L . Since A & B are on the same isoquant, Q = 0. So, MPK K + MPL L = 0 . B C MPK K = - MPL L . K/L = - MPL/MPK
KA KB
Q1
LA LB
Q2
slope of isoquant
Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS) or slope of an isoquant

K/L = - MPL/MPK the negative of the ratio of the marginal products of the inputs, with the input on the horizontal axis in the numerator.
How does output respond to changes in scale in the long run? Three possibilities: 1. Constant returns to scale 2. Increasing returns to scale 3. Decreasing returns to scale
Constant returns to scale

Doubling inputs results in double the output.
Increasing returns to scale

Doubling inputs results in more than double the output. One reason this may occur is that a firm may be able to use production techniques that it could not use in a smaller operation.
Decreasing returns to scale

Doubling inputs results in less than double the output. One reason this may occur is the difficulty in coordinating large organizations (more paper work, red tape, etc.)
Graphs of Constant, Increasing, & Decreasing Returns to Scale

Capital Capital Capital
150
150
100 50 Labor Constant Returns to Scale: isoquants for output levels 50, 100, 150, etc. are evenly spaced. 150 100 50 Labor Increasing Returns to Scale: isoquants for output levels 50, 100, 150, etc. get closer & closer together. 100 50 Labor Decreasing Returns to Scale: isoquants for output levels 50, 100, 150, etc. become more widely spaced.
Methods of estimating production functions 1. using statistical analysis of time series or cross-sectional data. 2. based on experimentation or experience with day-to-day operations.
A commonly used production function is the Cobb-Douglas function

Q = AL1 K2 M3
where K is the quantity of capital, L is the quantity of labor, & M is the quantity of raw materials. A, 1, 2, & 3 are parameters that depend on the specific case. Also, 1, 2, & 3 are between 0 & 1. If 1+ 2 + 3 = 1, we have constant returns to scale. If 1+ 2 + 3 > 1, we have increasing returns to scale. If 1+ 2 + 3 < 1, we have decreasing returns to scale.
Suppose Q = AL.5 K.2 M.5

Show that with 1+ 2 + 3 = .5 + .2 + .5 = 1.2 > 1, this production function does have increasing returns to scale, by showing that doubling inputs results in more than double the output.
Let Q be the output resulting from doubling the inputs. Then Q = (A)(2L).5 (2K).2 (2M).5 = (A) (2.5 L.5) (2.2 K.2) (2.5 M.5) = (A) (2.5) (2.2) (2.5)(L.5 K.2 M.5) = (A) (2 .5 + .2 + .5)(L.5 K.2 M.5) = 21.2 (A L.5 K.2 M.5) > 2 (A L.5 K.2 M.5) 2Q So doubling the inputs more than doubles the output.

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What are the different types of inputs used in production?

What are the different types of inputs used in production?

What is a production function and how does it relate inputs to output?

What is a production function and how does it relate inputs to output?

Production

Inputs for Production

The scale of a firms operation is determined by its fixed inputs.

Example: Q = 21X + 9X2 X3

Example: Q = 21X + 9X2 X3

Example: Q = 21X + 9X2 X3

Continuous MP dQ/dX =21+ 18 X 3X2

Average Product (AP)

Example: Q = 21X + 9X2 X3

In this graph, we see that initially, AP is increasing

and then decreasing

Principle of Diminishing Marginal Returns

Total Product, Marginal Product, & Average Product Curves

incr marg returns

pt of dim marg returns

pt of dim avg returns

dim total returns

marginal returns become negative

Isoquant for 100 units of output

Quantity of labor used per unit of time

Isoquants for different output levels

125 100 50 Quantity of labor used per unit of time

Each of the indicated points uses one-third as much capital as labor.

Quantity of labor used per unit of time

It is possible for an isoquant to have positively sloped sections.

Quantity of labor used per unit of time

Quantity of labor used per unit of time

Marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS)

What is the MRTS or slope of the isoquant?

Quantity of labor used per unit of time

Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS) or slope of an isoquant

Constant returns to scale

Increasing returns to scale

Decreasing returns to scale

Graphs of Constant, Increasing, & Decreasing Returns to Scale

A commonly used production function is the Cobb-Douglas function

Suppose Q = AL.5 K.2 M.5

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